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UMTED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE 

A CONCISE TREATISE 

AS TO ITS 

QUALITIES axd SOUNDNESS 

Including Bits and Bitting — Saddles and Saddling — Stable 

Drainage— Driving One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, 

or Tandem ; and extracts from RAREYS and 

ROCKWELL'S Method of Training 

Young and Obstinate Horses 

BY 

Captain F. W. BACH 



WITH 30 ILLUSTRATIONS 





NEW YORK 

WILLIAM R. JENKINS 

VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER 

851 and 853 Sixth Avenue 

1893 



rmzy 






Copyright, 1893, 

By William K. Jenkins. 

All Bights Resetted. 



Pbinted by the 

Pbess of William R. Jenkins, 

New Yobk. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE. 

Preface 

Introduction 5 

The Skeleton 8 

The column of the Vertebra? —The Spinal column 
— The Neck — The function of the Hind legs— The 
function of the Fore legs— Comparative value of the 
different Bones and Joints. 

The angular combinations of the Bones 10 

The position of the Hind legs 13 

The position of the Fore legs 19 

The proportions of the Fore and Hind legs ... 24 

The examination of the Horse from front and from behind 27 

Suggestions to the purchaser of a Horse 54 

Description of the most common Blemishes on the Legs . . 69 

" " " " " on the Fore Legs 69 

" on the Hind Legs 74 

The Age of the Horse 78 

Rarey's and Rockwell's Methods of Training Young 

or Obstinate Horses 81 

Introduction — False views of the habit of horses 
to smell at unaccustomed objects —Funda- 
mental Rules of Rarey's system — Application 
of Rarey's principles for wild and shy Horses — 
Rarey's method of training obstinate Horses — The 
handling of untrained Horses — Putting the halter on 
the Colt — To train the Colt to go at the side of a 
trained horse— To tie the young horse without its 
pulling at the halter — Bridle pulling— Putting on 
the Bit -To get the Colt used to the bit— The Bitting 
bridle — Bitting the Colt — Saddling the Horse — 
Mounting the Horse — Riding the Horse, after Rarey 
— Riding the Horse, after Rockwell — Breaking 



11 CONTENTS. 

Rarey's and Rockwell's Methods, etc., Continued, 

the Horse to Harness — Harnessing the Horse — 
Hitching up the Colt — Teaching the Colt to back — 
Refusing to pull — To drive wild Horses, or such oi 
vicious habits — To teach the Horse to lie down — 
Throwing the Horse — To teach the Horse to follow 
his master —To cause the Horse to follow you — To 
teacli the Horse to stand still without tying — Bad to 
bridle — Hard to back — Hard pullers — Shoeing the 
Colt — Striking and kicking while shoeing. 

Bits and Bitting 131 

Three dimensions of the Horse's mouth. (1) The 
transversal width of the mouth. (2) The width 
of the tongue-channel. (3) The height of the bars. 
The width of the Port — Length of upper and 
lower branch of the bit — The bit stands stiff, or falls 
through — Structure and size of the Horse's bars and 
tongue — Movable mouthpieces — Tongue over the 
bit — Grabbing at and holding the bit — Combination 
bit. 

Saddles and Saddling 158 

The Wooden-tree Saddle— The Elastic Leather-tree 
Saddle— Ladies' Saddles — Saddle Cloths— Girths- 
Stirrups — How to saddle Horses properly — Construc- 
tion of the Horse's shoulder, and its influence on 
saddling — Where to place the Girths— Stirrups. 

Stable Drainage 159 

Driving 161 

Driving one Horse or a pair — Guiding hand — 
Assisting hand — Hints — Punishment (where to hit) 
— Position of the coachman on the box — Starting- 
Stopping — Backing — Turning. 

Driving four in hand — How to arrange the reins 
— To start correctly — Stopping — Backing — Turning 
— Going down-hill — Going up-hill — Another way to 
arrange the reins. 
Tandem driving. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Frontispiece 

FIG. PAGE- 

\-a 29 

1.2 35 

3, 4 38 

5 39 

6. 7 41 

8 43 

9, 10 44 

10-fi 52 

11 Blemishes of the fore legs 70 

12 Blemishes of the hind legs 75 

13 Teeth of the Horse 78 

14 Skeleton of the Horse 80 

15 Pulling at the halter 94 

16 Bitting bridle 97 

17 Rockwell bit 99 

18 Rockwell bridle 100 

19 Strap with buckle and wooden gag bit 116 

20, 20a, 21, 21a To teach a Horse to lie down, (Rarey). . . 117 

22 Throwing a Horse, (Rockwell) 120 

23 The right and the wrong way 135 

24 Combination bit 138 

25a New adjustable saddle girth 148 

25 About stable floors 157 

26 Holding the lines in driving one horse or a pair 161 

27 Position of the coachman on the box 164 

28 Turning 107 

29 Holding the Lines driving Four in hand. 173 
3 ) Holding the Lines driving Four in Hand (another way) 178 



PREFACE 



Every purchaser of a horse knows by expe- 
rience how difficult it is to arrive at correct con- 
clusions as to its soundness and qualities, and if 
he is dependent upon the opinions of others, 
however good the horse may prove to be, his 
pleasure is marred somewhat by the thought 
that it was not he himself who selected the 
horse. 

Everybody loves a horse ; everybody ought 
to study its conformation. To facilitate matters, 
generally, it is the intention of the author of 
this little treatise, to assist the intending pur- 
chaser of a horse by laying down some rules 
concerning the judging of horses. 

Unlike many valuable books on the exterior 
of the horse, this little treatise has the advantage 
of great conciseness in pointing out, in few pages, 
the most important guiding points for the judg- 
ing of a horse, omitting a detailed description 
of the different ailments and their treatment. 



PREFACE. 



Some points on Harey\ and JZochwelVs 
methods of training young or obstinate horses 
are added, as it may become necessary for the 
owner of horses, especially if living in the 
country, with nobody near capable of hand- 
ling young or obstinate horses, to break-in his 
young stock himself or correct those having 
formed bad or dangerous habits. 

A few remarks, concerning how to handle the 
reins properly for correct and stylish driving 
one horse, a pair, a four-in-hand, and a tandem 
may be of interest to some of the readers. Also 
bits and bitting, saddles and saddling, and 
stable drainage, will be considered. 

The Author. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Horse-breeding in the United States, having, 
thanks to the efforts of public-spirited men, reached 
such dimensions, and been raised to a high stand- 
ard of excellence, our breeders can, most favorably, 
compete with those of any other nation. Still, the 
vast expanse of our country renders it in many cases 
impossible for the buyer to purchase directly from 
the breeder. He is, therefore, compelled to address 
himself to the dealer, who, like every merchant, will 
select his goods to secure quick sales, especially 
because they are really an eating capital, and 
perhaps, more than any other, exposed to damage. 
The appearance of the damaged and the used-up, — 
some visible defect, — is far more in the way of a 
quick sale than inferior quality, and, therefore, is 
studiously avoided by the dealer. He will take good 
care to produce his goods to the best advantage to 
him&elf. 

The fine appearance of the horse, that is, the good 
condition and the smooth hair, is brought about by 
rich and soft feed, a warm stable, careful covering, 
and good grooming. The whip takes care of the 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

liveliness of the liorse and the appearance of courage 
and strength. It makes the horse forget all stable 
vices, as gripping, weaving, kicking and biting; 
and in mustering, causes it to exert every nerve, and 
oftentimes to step as it may never step again. 

The dealer will take care that no blemishes are on 
the bones by dealing only in young horses, having 
done as yet no hard work, and where hereditary 
inclinations have not been brought to light by 
exertion, nor such defects developed which are a 
necessary consequence of faulty conformation. It is, 
therefore, very rare to find a good matured horse in a 
dealer's stable. Whoever has one will take good 
care to keep it, or else he will get a higher price for 
it amongst his friends than from a dealer, who is 
compelled to produce such horses on which even 
the would-be connoisseur can find no fault. Only 
large dealers, whose customers are real connoisseurs, 
buy elderly horses for good prices and need not care 
for harmless blemishes. The pretending connoisseur 
knows nothing but to find blemishes, sees everywhere 
spavins and galls, instead of judging the qualities of 
a horse according to its whole framework. 

How often can we see such people turning 
in disgust from an eight-year Hercules and pay a 
high price for a four-year old, clean-legged weak- 
ling, which, after the first exacting use, may be 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

covered with quite more serious defects than with 
that little gall, which held them back from the pur- 
chase of the other horse. 

The desire, though unjustified, to buy only young 
horses, may have its origin partly in that the age of 
a horse by its teeth can only be judged with accuracy 
up to its eighth year, and, therefore, the purchaser 
is afraid to buy a Methusalah, and partly in the 
mistaken belief that every step the horse has taken 
in his life be a consummation to be subtracted from 
its value. But, in reality, the properly conducted 
work, instead of causing deterioration, is a necessity 
for the development and strengthening of the horse's 
powers. The whole appearance of the animal tells 
better than its teeth whether it is in its decline, and 
as in the human race there are young weaklings in 
horses. 

The judging of the abilities of the horse accord- 
ing to its proportions and the position of its legs 
shall form the nucleus of this treatise. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE SKELETON. 

The horse is useful to man by its motion. The 
faster, safer and lasting the same, and the less the 
soundness of the legs is suffering from it, the more 
perfect it will be. The motion of the horse varies 
with the difference in the gait. In tvalking it moves 
forward with one hind leg assisted by the diagonal 
fore leg, whilst the other hind and fore leg support 
the body. This movement is executed in a slow 
manner, in four beats, without free propulsion. 
When trotting, the motion is in two beats, spring- 
like. Two diagonal legs support the body while 
the other two move forward. A moment before they 
foot, the first two leave the ground and move 
forward and so on. In gallop, both hind legs throw 
the body forward, almost simultaneously, and 
move it in a rocking motion over the still 
supporting fore legs. These latter are lifted the 
next moment, so that the whole body floats in 
the air for an instant. The hind legs reach the 



THE SKELETON. U 

ground first again, and support the body ; quickly, 
follow the fore legs, and then the hind legs begin 
anew their forward throwing activity. The gattop 
is discernible to the ear by two or three beats. 

If we consider the different parts participating in 
the movements of the horse, we find that there are 
the neck, the back, the hind legs, and the fore legs. 

The column of the vertebrae extends from the head 
to the tail. The part from the withers to the highest 
point of the croup is destined to carry the whole 
rump, and its power is augmented partly by elonga- 
tions of the vertebrae in an upward direction, partly 
by the ribs fastened to the vertebrae on both sides 
and forming an arch-like vault under the spinal 
column. 

The spinal column consists of a uniform number of 
vertebrae (See Skeleton Fig. 14) ; the closer they 
stand together the shorter the column will be, 
and accordingly more able to carry weight. 
The otherwise horizontal line of the spinal 
column sinks downward at its forward termi- 
nation to connect with the vertebrae of the neck, 
forming the so-called curve of the ivitherv, and the 
more pronounced this curve the greater the carrying 
power. This carrying power is also dependent upon 
the relative positions of the two end points, or in 
other words upon the distance between the withers, 



10 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

where the shoulders are fastened, and the highest 
point of the croup, for the same reason that the 
carrying power of a horizontal pole is greater the 
shorter it is. The back must appear higher in its 
fore part (at the withers) than in its hind part if the 
weight of the rump shall be equally divided between 
fore and hind legs, because the extensions of the 
vertebrae are considerably larger over the withers, 
not only so much as is necessary to that projection, 
but also to balance the aforesaid depression of the 
spinal curve. The higher and longer the withers 
the better. From the point where the latter con- 
nects with the back, the upper line should proceed 
horizontally. Under such conditions the passive 
carrying power of the back is not only a great one, 
but also the bulk of the muscles located on both 
sides of the high projections of the spinal column 
increase the power of gathering on the hind legs, or, 
in other words, the active carrying power, 

A deviation from this formation we find in the 
overbuilt horse, where the line of the back mounts 
upward from the end point of the low withers. In 
this case the forward end of the spinal column rests 
on supports lower than those of the rear end, the 
weight being consequently thrown more on the fore 
legs. This fault will be neutralised only when an 
oblique shoulder and a high set-up neck facilitate 



THE SKELETON. 11 

aii increased freedom of action. As these latter 
qualities are more frequently found with mares than 
with horses, the disadvantage of the former being 
generally overbuilt is of less consequence. 

If, on the other side, the fore legs stand higher 
than the hind legs, the horizontal line of the back 
will be lost to the disadvantage of the hind legs. 

The spinal column will curve upward in all cases 
where both fore and hind legs are placed under the 
body, whilst the farther the horse extends its fore 
and hind legs, the deeper the back will sink down- 
ward, therefore, a horse at full speed will at one 
moment curve up its back and at the next moment 
unbend it again. For this reason must every faulty 
construction of the spinal column, deviating from the 
horizontal — the supports being equally high — dimin- 
ish the ability of the horse to curve up or bend 
down its back. A back between equally high sup- 
ports, but curved up by nature, is called a hunch or 
roach back. It will not admit the bending down 
under the horizontal line, therefore disabling horses 
of this kind to cover much ground in sharp gaits. 
But we must not mistake the hunch back for the 
bent-up back. Horses of a powerful short back and 
high swelling loins are oftentimes found to bend up 
their back under the rider and to unbend it only 
after prolonged work. ~~~ 



12 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

The contrary fault is the deep, and, in a higher de- 
gree, the swaybach. Horses of this structure lack 
the power of curving up the back. If a long back 
is added to this deficiency, then it is an unmistak- 
able sign of weakness, and the horse is not fit to 
carry heavy weight. In such a back the deepest 
point is generally in the centre. Horses of a short 
but deep back have the lowest point frequently right 
behind the shoulders, and sometimes above the loins. 
As weak as such a back may appear, it is more an 
eyesore, as such horses oftentimes show good quali- 
ties, provided their hindquarters are powerful 
enough to take up the increased weight thrown upon 
them. Horses with very weak backs oftentimes 
curve up the same spasmodically under heavy 
weight, thereby deceiving the inexperienced. Light 
riding, in free gaits and on soft ground, will show 
very soon whether power or weakness is the reason 
for the curving up. 

The foremost $art of the column of the vertebrae, 
which is not destined to carry weight, namely, the 
" Neck," is, through the kind of its connection with 
the spinal column, of high importance for the free 
action of the forehand. A high set-up neck is of 
great value, not only through the relief it gives to 
the forehand, but also through the favorable direc- 
tion for the contraction of the- muscles, lifting the 



THE SKELETON. 13 

shoulder-joint, and which take their issue from the 
neck. But the neck must be set-up high through 
the length of its vertebrce, besides a well-formed curve 
of the withers. 

A high set-up neck, by a flat arch of the vertebrae 
of the withers, gives the horse a good enough appear- 
ance, but goes on cost of the bearing power of the 
back. 

FUNCTIONS OF THE HIND LEGS. 

Considering the functions of the hind legs (see 
Fig. 14), we find that their activity in the footing, 
supporting and propelling of the burden, is best 
compared with that of elastic springs. In motion 
this burden inclines forward, the lower part of 
the spring, the hoof, is brought forward under the 
body to support its centre of gravity. 

In this first moment the leg performs a swing 
forward around the hip-joint. 

In the second moment the hoof foots on the 
ground and the leg takes up the burden. 

In the third moment the body moves forward over 
the hoof resting on the ground ; the upper part of the 
leg moves over and around the lower part of the leg. 
The spring acts, pushing ; the more it gets relieved 
of the burden the more powerful it pushes the same 
forward, and the farther it is moved forward the 



14 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

more will the spring act horizontally and spaciously 
on the same. 

In the fourth moment the under end of the spring 
(the hoof) leaves the ground, swinging itself off 
elastically ; the farther back, the more powerful 
pushing to forward; the farther under the burden, the 
higher throwing the same upward. Then the whole 
process begins anew. 

Therefore, we distinguish the moments of the ex- 
tending, the footing ', the supporting, and the propelling. 

It is apparent that the ability of the hind legs to 
cover much ground can only then be a considerable 
one, if the combination of the bones, set angularly 
to each other, is such as to admit not only of their 
stepping far forward, as also of their holding out far 
behind the perpendicular. The aspect presented by 
a well-formed hind leg in performing such a move- 
ment is composed of the following details : 

(1) The leg should be raised with lightly and 
equally bent joints, and be placed quick and far 
under the body. 

(2) In taking up the burden (footing) only the fet- 
lock should bend moderately. 

(3) The fetlock should rise up again light and 
elastic under the weight moving forward and over it, 
and the leg should hold out long behind the perpen- 
dicular. 



THE SKELETON. 15 

(4) The propulsion, or the free swinging-off, must 
be light but powerful, extending and springy, neither 
jerk-like nor contractile, but the hoof should hold 
out long in the air and show the shoe, without 
turning over the fetlock. 

All these movements should pass over into each 
other with ease, without making the impression of 
great exertion. 

L^t us now consider which proportions in the 
framework most favor the action of the hind legs. 

The sjyinal column rests firm and immovable upon 
the haunch bones, whose foremost parts are visible 
in the projecting hip bones, and are ending in the 
ischium bones, which form the posterior parts of the 
haunches. Between the hip and the ischium bones, 
but considerably nearer the latter, the haunch 
bones have on either side a socket, 'in which the 
head of the thigh bones are inserted. 

This latter bone it is which moves the whole hind 
leg attached to it, forward and backward. The 
wider the circle described by the thigh bone around 
its centre, the further can the hoof be placed for- 
ward under or backward behind the body. The 
most room for the placement of a long thigh bone 
will be under a haunch lying nearly horizontal, but 
its lower end, the stifle-joint, should not transgress 
the vertical line from the hip to the ground. 



16 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

The length of the haunch bones, determining that of 
the croup, can never be too large, because with this 
length increases not only the length of the thigh 
bone, but also the distance of the hip joint from the 
hip, and also from the point of the ischium. With 
the largeness of these dimensions grows also the 
space for the development of the most important 
muscles for the extending and propelling power of 
the hind leg ; besides developing a more favorable 
condition for the contractile power of the muscles 
between their two fastening points. The angle 
formed between haunch and thigh bone varies 
between 80 and 100 degrees. In the stifle-joint 
the thigh bone is connected with the leg bone, 
under an angle of about 120 degrees. Hip 
and stifle-joint together are generally called the 
u haunches,'' and the pliability of these two joints 
is called " the contractibility of the haunches." 

The haunches, as well as the thigh bone, are, on 
their surfaces, covered with so many powerful mus- 
cles that their structure and connection can only 
be judged by the formation and the length of the 
croup and the position of the stifle-joint. The loca- 
tion of the latter is of great importance, as it enables 
us to draw a conclusion as to the length and oblique- 
ness of the thigh bone. A well-formed stifle-joint 
reaches with its forward point near to the perpen- 



THE SKELETON. 17 

dieular line from the posterior point of the hip to 
the ground, and looked at from behind, its position 
must appear so far outward that the horse looks 
broader there than in the hips (Fig. 10a). While 
the haunch and thigh bones are enclosed by volumi- 
nous muscles, and consequently their outlines can 
be only indistinctly traced, the position of the lower 
parts of the leg are easily discernible. 

The leg bone is connected at its upper end with the 
thigh bone through the stifle-joint, at its lower end 
with the shank bone through the hock-joint. The 
leg bone is, likewise, especially in its upper parts, 
clothed with powerful muscles, which, in connection 
with those of the thigh bone, are called "the hose." 
Every bone of great length, and surrounded by mus- 
cles, has the advantage of the muscles affixing them- 
selves in larger quantities on the same, therefore 
adding, through its greater length, to the energy of 
the motions. The same is the case with the leg 
bone. The favorable formation of a good thigh 
bone will, therefore, be completed by a long leg 
bone. Such a leg bone finds only room under a 
stifle-joint placed far forward and outward, from 
which it runs in an oblique direction from forward 
and outward to backward and inward, to connect in 
its lower end through the hock joint with the shank 
bone. The limit to which the leg bone may extend 



18 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

downward and backward must be the result of the 
conditions under which the position and angular 
conformation of the hock joint answers best the laws 
of burdens. 

The position of the hock joint should be such that its 
posterior end, the hock lever-bone, shall just be met 
by a lot from the ischium bone, and that this lot 
should run down along the shank bone. Viewed 
from behind, the hock joints should come closer 
together than the stifle-joint. The joint, besides 
showing sharp outlines, must make the impression 
of massiveness ; and not only the cross-section 
should be considerable, but also the extension from 
front to rear, as seen from the side. This latter 
dimension depends principally upon the length of 
the lever-bone, as representing the common lever 
for the action of the muscles of the hose, and, there- 
fore, for all the propulsive powers of the hind legs. 

The shank bone should show a perpendicular posi- 
tion and appear quite broad when looked at from 
the side ; the cords on its backside must appear 
sharply separated from the bone and from each 
other. The shank bone, serving only as a support, 
and not as a fastening place for the muscles, is only 
then favorably formed, if it is as short as possible. 
In the fetlock or upper pastern-joint the shank bone 
should be connected with the fetlock under an angle 



THE SKELETON. 19 

of 140 degrees. The small pastern and the coffin 
bone follow in the direction of the fetlock bone, and 
are connected by equally named joints. The lower 
part of the small pastern bone, the coffin joint 
and coffin bone, are encased in the hoof. 

On the length of the fetlock bone depend consider- 
ably the speed, elasticity and extent of the steps. 
A long spring develops a more telling force than a 
short one, whereas the latter can stand a greater 
pressure. Likewise the long fetlock has the greater 
elasticity, while the short one will carry a heavier 
weight. The fetlock must be formed according to 
the demands of either elasticity or carrying power, 
but the elasticity must always be in proper relation 
with the length of the former. The long elastic 
fetlock of the race horse and the short, hard fetlock 
of the draught horse are both good in their place. 
The long, soft and relaxing fetlock is bad with any 
animal ; it will succumb under the burden without 
producing any elasticity. The short, straight 
fetlock, bare of any springiness, ruins joints and 
ligaments. 

FUNCTIONS OF THE FORE LEGS. 

Let us now consider the functions of the fore legs, 
and we find a repetition of the four moments we 
had to distinguish in the hind legs, viz., the extend- 



20 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

ing, the footing, the supporting and the propelling ; 
but there is a decided difference between fore and 
hind leg in the second and fourth moments, viz., the 
footing and the propelling. The fore leg exerts its 
greatest power in the moment of footing, a minor 
one in the moment of propelling (or swinging-off), the 
contrary being the case with the hind leg. 

At the second moment the fore leg has to take up 
almost the entire force of the concussion produced 
by the weight in connection with the motion, to pre- 
vent the body from turning a summersault ; but at 
the four tli moment the fore leg cannot do much in the 
way of tossing the burden forward, because its 
elasticity is not transferred to a firm basis of bones 
of the rump, but is reduced to a minimum by being 
connected with the side part of the chest by mus- 
cles only. 

The conditions under which the fore legs fulfil 
their task best are easiest observed in the trot. 

The general points for a fine action in the trot, are: 

(1) Light, free and high raising of the leg from 
the shoulder with well-bent knee ; far, light and 
powerful extending from the shoulder; gradual 
stretching forward of the parts underneath the knee, 
so that the leg looks straight only when the hoof 
touches the ground. 

(2) Footing on the full hoof. 



THE SKELETON. 21 

(3) Loiig holding out of the leg behind the per- 
pendicular. 

All these moments of the action should pass over 
into each other with ease, and should not show any 
interruption ; they should be elastic, without making 
the impression of exertion or convulsive strain of the 
muscles. 

Let us now examine the construction of the fore 
leg. 

The shoulder-blades encase and support the chest 
in its forward part on both sides, and are only 
fastened to it by muscles and the outer skin. Their 
motions are upward and downward around a pivot, 
located about four fingers below their upper edge ; 
consequently the upper part of the shoulder, above 
that pivot, will move backward and downward, when 
the part below the pivot moves forward and lip- 
ward. This motion of the upper part of the shoulder 
is interfered with, should the saddle be shifting 
forward. High and sharp withers, preventing 
such shifting of the saddle, are an indispensable 
quality in a saddle-horse. Besides this movability 
ot the shoulder forward and backward, it has a very 
slight capability for sideward motions, though 
limited. 

The flexibility of the shoulder is the cause of the 
horse's ability to lift his fore legs considerably with- 



22 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

out the spinal column abandoning its horizontal 
position, or without molesting to any degree the 
hind quarters with the weight of the forehand, 
thereby reducing their propelling powers. 

At its lower end, the shoulder-blade is connected 
with the arm bone, through the shoulder joint, under 
an angle of 80 to 100 degrees. 

Shoulder blade and arm bone in- their relation 
have much similarity with the thigh and leg bone 
of the hind leg. What is said about the position of 
these two latter bones and their combination holds 
good also for shoulder blade and arm bone. The 
shoulder must be long and oblique, which is only 
possible if its upper and rear edge reaches far back 
at the side of the withers. The arm bone also must 
distinguish itself by considerable length and an 
oblique position. Under these conditions both bones 
are jointed under a right angle. The shoulder joint 
has then a large opening capacity, and, the length 
of the bones being considerable, the faculty of ex- 
tension of the leg is a great one. Furthermore, 
between these two long bones the masses of muscles 
can accumulate in larger proportions and receive 
the most favorable direction for action. The main 
stress in judging the upper part of the fore leg is 
always to be laid on the oblique direction and length of 
the arm bone. If these qualities are there, the leg is 



THE SKELETON. 23 

capable of extending itself far forward and holding 
out far backward behind the perpendicular, though 
the shoulder may be a little longer or shorter. 

A short shoulder by excellent length of the arm 
bone we find in all animals, which by a high location 
of the shoulder joint, distinguish themselves by supe- 
rior swiftness — as greyhounds, deer, etc. The ex- 
amination of horses, which by great freedom of 
shoulder show extraordinary speed, proves that they 
frequently have a very oblique — not a long-shoul- 
der, but a very long arm bone ; whereas the defect 
of a short arm bone cannot be counterbalanced by a 
long and oblique shoulder; the long and far-reach- 
ing steps out of the latter, consequently disappears, 
and only the high action is left. A shoulder only 
long, but without obliqueness, may become detrimen- 
tal, the shoulder joint being placed too low down. 
Furthermore, it must be taken in consideration that 
the shoulder-blade forms the basis for the neck, 
which will be set up higher, the more oblique 
the shoulders are; but, on the other hand, will appear 
broader and more projecting, the straighter the latter 
are. The farther the head and neck are projecting, the 
farther is the leg compelled to step forward to sup- 
port the weight; but, with- a straight shoulder, this 
is impossible, although very necessary. With the 
length of the steep shoulder, the basis of the neck 



24 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

becomes broader, and the weight of the latter grows 
larger. The fastest, and so very shoulder free race- 
horses, have the thinnest necks. 

The elbow joint connects the arm bone with the 
fore arm. This latter consists of the fore arm bone 
and the elbow bone ; the latter, with its elongation, 
called the lever of the elbow, extending considerably 
beyond the rear part of the elbow joint. On this 
lever are fastened the extensor tendons, emanating 
from the shoulder-blade, and acting on the 
elbow bone when the leg is supporting or push- 
ing the weight forward, like on a one-armed lever, 
the prop resting on the ground, and the weight to 
be lifted and moved on the elbow joint. The extend- 
ing activity of the muscles on this lever comes espe- 
cially into play, as the leg pushes the weight forward. 
This activity becomes, then, of the same importance 
for the fore arm, as the united activity of the muscles 
of the hose and the extensors of the hock joint for 
the hind legs, namely, as a pushing and elastic 
power. For this reason has a long projection of the 
elbow the same advantages of a long lever, as the 
lever bone of the hock joint. A long projection of 
the elbow has the further advantage of granting the 
necessary space for the full development of the mus- 
cles of the fore arm, which rest partly on the former, 
and, in which case, the upper part of the fore arm, 



THE SKELETON. 25 

seen from the side, makes the impression of impos- 
ing width. 

Great length of the forearm, as a bone enveloped 
by muscles, adds considerably to the execution of 
powerful movements of the lower parts of the leg. 
At least a short fore arm in a long leg is at all times 
an unfavorable formation, brought about by a too 
great and injurious length of ihe cannon bone. For 
the dimensions of the cannon bone, the fetlock, etc., 
the same rules are decisive as on the hind legs. 

Comparative value of the different bones and joints. 
(See Fig. 14.) 

If I said that the importance of the shoulder 
blade and arm bone for the movements of the fore 
leg be equal to that of the thigh bone and leg bone 
of the hind leg, I find myself seemingly in contradic- 
tion with the usual opinions, viz : that the shoulder 
is as the haunch bone of the fore leg ; that the arm 
bone corresponds with the thigh bone, and the fore 
arm with the leg bone ; and that, therefore, the elbow 
joint has a similar relation to the stifle joint, and 
the elbow to the stifle. From an anatomical stand- 
point, these views may be correct; but viewing the 
different bones and joints from the standpoint of 
the movements and performances executed by them, 
we will come to a different opinion. For instance, 
the movements of the arm bone are not the same 



26 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

as those of the thigh bone ; the elbow joint is not 
in the same relation for the forward movement of 
the fore leg as is the stifle joint for the hind leg, its 
chief activity coming into play during the act of 
pushing forward. 

If we look at the different bones and joints of the 
haunches, we find that the thigh bone corresponds- 
with the shoulder-blade of the fore leg, the leg bone 
with the arm bone, etc. 

The shoulder-blade lies parallel with the thigh bone 
(Fig l a , page 29, a and a), and their motions, in ex- 
tending the legs forward and in pushing forward, are 
precisely in the same direction, though the shoulder- 
blade is less movable, different in form, and, at its 
upper end, fastened only to muscles and not to a 
socket like the thigh bone. But these are modifica- 
tions brought about and justified through its cramped 
but otherwise safe position at the vault of the chest. 
The very movable shoulder can never be compared 
with the totally unmovable haunch bones. These 
latter enclose the internal and posterior cavity of the 
rump in the shape of a firm bony ring, similar to 
the ribs, enclosing the organs of the chest, a task 
which the shoulder-blade has nothing to do with. 
This firm ring of bone could go in close connection 
with the thigh bone ; the movable and less resisting 
ribs could form a union with the uppermost bone of 



THE SKELETON. 27 

the leg (the shoulder-blade) only on a broader basis 
and in an elastic manner; a flat bone of the shape 
of the shoulder-blade only being fit for that pur- 
pose. 

Between arm bone and leg bone (Fig. l a , b and //), 
running likewise in the same direction, the similarity, 
also in regard to shape, is a larger one. At the 
upper end of the arm bone the cartilaginous roller 
for the flexor tendon of the fore arm represents the 
stifle of the hind leg. The lower end of the arm 
bone forms a joint, on the backside of which the 
lever of the elbow presents exactly the same lever 
as on the hock joint (c and c r ). 

The two bones connected by the knee joint, the 
fore arm and shin bone, run both in the same perpen- 
dicular direction as the shank bone of the hind leg 
and represent together (taken as supporting bones) 
the shank bone of the hind leg (d and d'). In every 
position — forward or backward — which the fore leg 
assumes in supporting, both these bones always 
represent a straight line, one supporting column, in 
which function the joint in the knee may be con- 
sidered as not existing. The knee joint should not 
be movable if under weight, and it also shows no 
lever projections on which muscles could pro- 
duce powerful actions. The joint must, therefore, 
be considered simply as a ruption of the straight 



28 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

column, existing onlj r for the purpose of facilitating 
a contraction of the leg while bringing the same for- 
ward. If this contraction, between fore arm and shin 
bone were not possible, if both would present one 
uninterrupted piece of bone from the elbow down to 
the fetlock joint, the foot in moving forward would 
continually strike against obstacles on the ground. 
For this reason the knee joint is indispensable. 
It has no other essential task, but to facilitate a 
reduction of the whole length of the leg. It 
is perfectly justifiable to consider the shank bone 
of the hind leg, during the period of supporting, 
equal to the whole column from the elbow down 
to the fetlock. 

If we consider, in this manner, the forearm as an 
upward extension of the shin bone, then the elbow 
joint corresponds with the hock joint, the shoulder 
joint with the stifle-joint. 

The principal points, in comparing the different 
bones and joints, should always be the similarity of 
their movements. The shoulder joint and elbow 
joint control all the extensible movements of the 
fore leg, in the same manner, as the stifle joint and 
hock joint govern those of the hind leg. Particularly 
pronounced is the similarity of the actions, if we 
observe the effect of the muscles on the levers 
during the supporting and propelling activity of 



THE SKELETON. 



29 



both legs. The same effect which the muscles of the 
hose, iu connection with the Achill-chord, perform on 
the lever of the hock, the extensor tendons will 
perform on the lever of the elbow. The muscles of 
the hose draw the lever of the hock toward the thigh 
bone, and, the thigh bone being simultaneously 
moved backward by the muscles of the croup, all the 
upper joints will be opened. 

Fig. la. 




This sudden extension of the leg represents the 
propelling activity of the hind leg, the hock joint 
forming the near and the ground the more remote f uL 
crum. The same is the case with the fore leg. The 
extensors acting on the elbow, at the same time the 
shoulder joint being opened at the front side by the 
long flexor of the fore arm, the same sudden elonga- 



30 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

tion of the whole column takes place, and, with it, a 
tossing, elastic action, though, on account of the 
shortness of the angularly connected bones, with 
less force than that produced on the hind leg. 

The elbow joint must, therefore, be considered as 
the hock joint, that is, the spring joint of the fore leg. 
With the stifle-joint it has nothing else in common 
except being in position of nearly equal height on 
the rump, the necessity for which there are other 
reasons. The knee cannot be compared with the 
hock, because a spring-like action can never be 
produced by a joint, which, while the leg is in 
the moment of supporting, permits no consider- 
able angular variations between the connecting 
bones. For the better understanding of these 
facts, the drawing (Fig. l a ) is added. The cor- 
responding joints : shoulder and stifle joints, elbow 
and hock joints, and the two fetlock joints are 
connected by dotted lines, while the various bones 
of equal value are marked by letters : a and a', etc. 
Especially observe the two lever projections of 
the elbow and the hock (c and c) so as to become 
convinced that it is from there that the propelling 
and the tossing power of the muscles for fore and 
hind leg is developed in exactly the same manner ; 
and that the comparison of the respective parts of 
the legs is correct. 



THE SKELETON. 31 

THE ANGULAR COMBINATION OF THE BONES. 

Thus far, we have considered those qualities of the 
skeleton of the horse, bearing relation to the exten- 
sion and safety of its movements. Now let us discuss 
those qualities necessary for the preservation of the 
limbs. 

The limbs are exposed to the most violent shocks. 
Not only the weight of the horse's own body, but also 
that of the rider, falls on them at every step, and 
with an increased force in sharp gaits and in jump- 
ing. The starting point of these shocks is the 
ground. From there the rebound meets first the 
hoof, and passes upward, diminishing in force, over 
the whole column. The bones, joints, and sinews 
nearest the ground suffer most, as is proved by the 
overwhelming number of lamenesses occuring on the 
lower leg. Furthermore, the rebound is the more 
destructive, as our hard roads make shoeing an im- 
perative necessity, thereby diminishing the expansive 
power of the hoof. The force of these jerks and 
shocks is broken by the angles under which the 
different bones are jointed together. The majority 
of the joints transmit the rebound only partly to the 
higher bones. The ligaments and sinews transmit 
a large portion of the shock to farther removed 
points of the column. On the upper part of the 



32 HOW TO JUDGE A HOP.SE. 

limbs, we find the longest bones ; the angles formed 
by them the narrowest, and the connecting joints the 
strongest. Where the connections are the straight- 
est, as in the lower parts, which are most exposed 
to the concussions, there we find, for the purpose of 
diminishing the concussions, three joints in the 
distance of a span of the hand, viz.: the upper and 
lower pastern and the coffin joint. 

With the advantages of a narrow angular forma- 
tion, grow also the extending ability of the limbs, 
and the space for the development of powerful 
muscles, as we have seen above, thereby making the 
mechanical proportions the most favorable. We 
find very favorable angular formations principally in 
the exquisite structure of the race-horse : the long 
fetlock, the oblique thigh and armbone, etc., enabling 
the horse to cover much ground, and to exhibit ex- 
traordinary staying power, and at the same time 
protecting it against hard concussions. The low 
bred horse, on the contrary, is characterized by the 
straight formation of its limbs, short and unelastic 
action, and by showing the effects of great exertions, 
oftentimes by inflammation of the joints. 

On the other side, the oblique position of the long 
bones has also its limit in the reduction of the carry- 
ing power. The more favorable the angular forma- 
tions, the greater the demand for powerful exertions, 



THE SKELETON. 33 

especially on the firmness of sinews and ligaments, 
therefore this oblique position of the long bones 
should not transgress certain limits. A disproportion 
is oftentimes found in the half-breeds, where the 
long bones, an inheritance of one parent, do not 
receive the necessary support from the loose fibres 
from the other parent, producing crippled limbs 
within a short time. 

Riders, without judgment, often taking the 
increased carrying power and hard inelasticity of 
the straight formations for signs of strength, attack 
and ruin the joints quickly ; sometimes they consider 
the elasticity of the favorable formations as weakness 
and are afraid to touch the animal. 

If we find a deviation from the normal, one joint 
too straight, another too oblique, the latter will have 
to bear the concussion intended for both. In a 
horse standing straight in his hocks, the fetlock 
joints will receive, in an increased proportion, the 
shock from the burden. Also, a horse, straight in 
the haunches (hip- and stifle-joints), but very oblique 
in the hock joints, will suffer in the latter. 

The fore leg, the angles of which, between shoulder 
blade and arm bone, and between arm bone and fore 
arm, are summarily narrower (as on the hind leg the 
angles between thigh bone and leg bone, and between 
leg bone and shank bone), receives, through the mus- 



34 nOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

cular connection between shoulder blade and chest, 
the benefit of greater elasticity against the effects of 
the rebound. But, nevertheless, the latter has a 
stronger and more destructive effect on the fore leg, 
being nearer the centre of gravity and eventually 
burdened with the weight of the rider. Horseman- 
ship is eagerly bent on attaining a greater develop- 
ment of the muscles of the back by an increased 
employment of the hind legs for the purpose of 
reducing the weight of the fore hand. 

It is an important part of the examination to see 
whether the limbs are correctly jointed ; and, by de- 
viations from the normal formation, whether those 
joints, being more severely taxed, are built sufficiently 
strong to offer increased resistance. 

Just as the above-mentioned irregularities may 
act destructively upon the neighboring joint, so it is 
with all irregularities of the structure. Perfectly 
built animals do not exist. It is interesting to 
observe how irregularities are multiplied by other 
irregularities, or again counter-balanced. The com- 
binations in this way are innumerable. Let us now 
consider some of them. 

THE POSITION OF THE HIND LEGS. 

The rump of the horse is supported by four pil- 
lars, whose portability is fixed by mechanical laws 



THE SKELETON. 



35 



The most favorable support is established by placing 
the basis under the weight in the direction of its 
gravity. In other words, the basis of the hoof, 
on the ground, falls perpendicularly under the hip 
joint. No exception is made by this pillar, being 
angularly composed, not straight. The location of 
the hip joint, being pretty well hidden, at least only 
definable by the aid of anatomical knowledge, this 
point is not available for common use to form a cor- 
rect idea of the perpendicular position of the leg 
over the basis of the hoof. We select, therefore, the 
posterior end of the haunches, the point of the 
ischium bone, and drop a line to the ground. If this 
perpendicular just touches the point of the hock, 
and from there is running down the back of the 
shank bone, then the hip joint will be nearly per- 
Fig- 1. Fig. 2. 




Normal Position. 
Good Angular Formation. 




Normal Position. 
Bad Angular Formation 



36 HOW TO. JUDGE A HORSE. 

pendicular over the toe of the hoof. This position 
of the hind leg is called the normal 

From this normal position, there are deviations in 
two directions. In many cases the hock joint falls 
forward of this perpendicular, but, more frequently, 
it falls behind the same. The first irregularity we 
may call the under -standing, the second, the back- 
standing position. 

It is apparent, that, with this change of basis, 
there must be connected a variation in the 
weighting of the joints, and that the column is not 
supported in itself. The perpendicular weighting 
creates, under these circumstances, a pressure on the 
whole column in a direction, causing the same to 
fall over — in the understanding position to back- 
ward, and in the back-standing position to forward. 
The balance can only be preserved, if the leg, through 
its muscles, employs such forces of traction and 
pressure as to counteract the intention of gravity to 
overturn the column. 

In the under-standing position of the hind leg, the 
uppermost point of the column, viz.: the femural 
head of the thigh bone, has a tendency of falling 
backward (Fig. 3) ; therefore, an opposing power 
must be eniploj'ed to enable the leg in this position 
to fulfil its task as a supporter. For this task, the 
whole group of muscles of the hose is qualified as 



THE SKELETON. 37 

being also in close connection with the flexors run- 
ning downward on the rear side of the hock and 
fetlock joints. An increased traction of the muscles, 
and, consequently, an increased tension of the above- 
mentioned flexors, has to neutralize the deviation in 
the position. On the other hand, such permanent and 
increased tension of the sinews will make itself felt 
in its consequences, and in the course of time by a 
straight position of the fetlock. It is apparent that 
an increased and continual activity of the flexors 
must take place, not only at rest, but also in motion, 
because, during the latter, the leg is constantly placed 
farther forward under the body, than in the case of 
the leg being jointed normally. 

For this latter reason, horses of this build perform 
the very gathered paces and short stops with ease, 
but the holding out of the leg behind the perpen- 
dicular will suffer, viz.: the propelling and the spring- 
ing power — the extensibility will not be equal to the 
carrying capability. Such horses will never be 
prominent, neither in a fast trot nor in running, and 
will bring little pressure into the harness. The 
direct cause, of this position of the leg, is the abnor- 
mal angular formation of some joint in connection 
with an abnormal length of the bones enclosing that 
joint. All the different combinations cannot be ex- 
haustively discussed on account of their magnitude, 



38 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



because each bone, taken for itself, or in connection 
with another, may be the cause. But, it is of great 
importance, for the judging, to distinguish two forms 
of the under-standing position, according to the 
bones of the upper or the lower leg being the cause. 
In the first case, the disadvantages are not great ; in 
the second, quite considerable. 

If, through the extra length of the thigh bone, the 
stifle-joint is placed far forward, but the leg bone 
is. short, and the hock joint straight, then we get the 
under-standing position, as in Fig 3. But here the 
adversity of the straight and unelastic hock joint is 
nearly compensated by the favorable length and the 
the considerable elasticity of the thigh bone. Such 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 





Under standing Position Under-standing Position 

by Excellent Thigh Bone, but Caused by the Stifle-joint Being 

Straight Hock Joint. Placed Far Forward. 



THE SKELETON. 



39 



horses are quite able, though a little hard in their 
motions. 

Also the case, in Fig. 4, where the exquisite length 
and obliqueness of the thigh bone of itself alone pro- 
duce the under-standing position, while the other 
joints are normal, is to be judged favorably. 

But, if the thigh bone is short aud the stifle joint 
stands straight, the ableness of the leg will under 
all circumstances be inconsider- FlG - 5 - 

able. The insignificant flexi- 
bility of the upper joints throws 
the weight, in an increased pro- 
portion, upon the lower joints. 
In the case, represented in Fig. 5, 
the oblique direction of the 
shank bone will increase the 
under-standing position still 
more, at the same time narrow- 
ing the angle of the hock joint, 
to the injury of the latter. Only 
the short radius of motion, permitted by the straight 
and short thigh bone, can save the hock joint from 
too frequent injuries. 

The back-standing position of the hind leg is per- 
ceptible in that the line from the ischium bone does 
not meet the posterior line of the hock and the 
shank bone, but is running down in front of the same. 




Under-standing Posi- 
tion Caused by a 
Short Leg Bone and 
Defective Direction 
of the Shank Bone. 



40 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

In this case, the leg is also not balanced in itself, but 
has to employ active muscular powers to establish 
equilibrium. But different muscles and cords, 
acting in a directly opposite direction from those in 
the under-standing position, must be brought into 
requisition ; therefore, the extensors will be strained 
permanently and to a high degree. This must also 
take place in motion, leading, finally, to a reduced 
capability of the extensor tendons for the movements 
of the leg forward. The legs cannot be placed 
sufficiently under the weight, and will, therefore, not 
be able to give the horse the necessary support in 
short paces and stops. 

The direct cause for the back-standing position 
may be traced to a defective position, or unpro- 
portioned length, of some bone. Which bone or 
joint at fault is very essential, for the criticism of 
the defect. It may be set down, as a geneal rule, that 
the defect is most serious if brought about by in- 
sufficient length and steepness of the thigh bone, as 
in Fig. 6. 

If the thigh bone is long and oblique, while the 
main defect exists in a too great length and oblique- 
ness of the leg bone, as in Fig. 7, then the formation 
is only unsightly, but the leg is well able for exertions 
especially in sharp paces. The whole column 
is very extensible, the leg can be stretched far back- 






THE SKELETON. 



41 



ward and the muscles of the haunches furnish a 
great propelling power, as can be observed by so- 
called bow-legged horses ; but the weight affects the 
two pastern joints, which frequently collapse down- 
ward and backward. 

In judging the different positions, it will be ob- 
served that the normal shape is not at all decisive 
for the working ability of the leg; because, the cor- 
rect position can exist, even in a very badly formed 
and unable leg. Fig. 2 shows how, in a leg composed 
only of short and straight angled bones, and with- 
out any ability for extension, the perpendicular posi- 
tion may be found. 

Fig. 6. Fig. 7 




^ 




Back-standing Position, Caused 
by Bad Location of the 
Stifle. 



Back - standing Position, 

Caused by Great Length 

of the Leg Bone. 



THE POSITION OF THE FORE LEGS. 

The uppermost part of the fore leg not being 
inserted in a firm bone like the thigh bone, but 



42 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

offering, with the whole inside surface of the shoulder, 
as far down as the elbow, fastening points for the con- 
necting muscles, the position of the highest point of 
the column to the basis of the hoof, is not of so much 
concern as in the hind leg. It will be pretty near 
correct, to consider the elbow joint as the chief sup- 
porting point for the ntnip, and its position as decid- 
ing. In the normal position, the elbow joint stands 
perpendicularly over the fetlock joint, and generally 
a line from the shoulder joint will meet the toe of the 
hoof. If we examine the deviations from this rule, 
we will find them to be in two directions. In the 
fore-standing or stretched position, the fetlock joint 
falls forward of the line from the elbow joint ; in the 
under-standing, behind the same. In the first case, 
the foot stands too far forward ; in the latter, too far 
under the body. 

In judging the fore-standing petition, we will find 
that all muscles and sinews, located on the rear side 
of the leg, not only including the flexors of the 
lower leg from the knee down^ but, also, the extensors 
acting on the elbow lever, have to work and carry 
weight in an increased proportion ; the conse- 
quence being that horses, with this formation, fre- 
quently strain their sinews, especially if the fetlock 
is very long. This defect will be augmented, if the 
leg is calf-kneed — that means, if the knee stands be- 



THE SKELETON. 



43 



Fig. 8. 




hind' the line. At all events, the fore-standing position 

is by far more injurious in the 

fore leg than the under-standing 

in the hind leg. In all the 

different gaits, the fore leg has 

to exert its greatest activity, 

and is most imperiled, while 

being stretched forward and in 

taking up the burden. But, it 

is apparent, that this position 

must increase the force of the 

weight and the danger of over- 

Fore-standing, Con- 
burdening the sinews. nected With Calf-Knee. 

The under-standing position is, under circum- 
stances, a defect without consequences — more of an 
eye-sore — but may become a serious blemish. The 
consequence of this position is, generally, a pro- 
truding crooked knee, less visible in young horses, 
but more developed in older horses, even to buck-knees. 
If, with the buck-knee is connected a long and elastic 
fetlock, and a long arm bone (Fig. 10), then such 
horses are quite fit for any service, and go safe. 

If we only find a crooked knee, while the fetlock 
is short and straight, as in Fig. 9, then they go very 
unsafe and are not fit for saddle horses . 

THE PROPORTIONS OF FORE AND HIND LEGS. 

To facilitate a regular movement of the fore and 



44 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 
Fig. 9, Fig. 10. 





Under-standing Position, Accom- 
panied by Short Fetlock and 
Arm Bone. 



Under-standing Position, 
Accompanied by a Long 
Fetlock and Arm Bone. 



hind legs, and to regulate the reciprocal effects of 
the forces, it is necessary that their ability for ex- 
tending, propelling, and tossing-off should be equally 
great. Only harmony in the movements can secure 
endurance. It is better that fore and hind legs 
possess equal qualities in motion, if ever so little, 
rather than have no harmony. Not for every pur- 
pose, do we need fast horses, or horses of great 
strength. Agricultural purposes, for instance, require 
a horse with enduring qualities, with very moderate 
speed and medium strength — an animal whose frame 
warrants limited motion, but endurance. Impru- 
dent experiments to improve the race, have often 
been the cause of disturbing the harmonious build 



THE SKELETON. 45 

of the farm horse. Experience in breeding shows 
that the foal inherits parts of its form and con- 
stitution from the sire, and parts from the dam, 
but there is no possibility of predicting the pro- 
portions. It can happen that the product of a 
high bred sire and a common mare possesses a free 
and elastic action in the fore hand, while the hind 
hand is weak and trailing, leaving the former unsup- 
ported — in front as a lion, behind as a cow. Likewise 
may the nobler of the parents transmit the long and 
oblique shoulders upon the foal, and, the common 
one, the flabbiness of the fibres of the muscles and 
sinews. The noble part of the inheritance can 
only be propelled by powerfully contractible muscles, 
and supported only by firmly organized chords and 
ligaments ; but the flabby ligaments are not able to 
protect the angular joint connections. In such cross- 
products, we have an opportunity to observe, that, 
while they may show a wide step, they lack energy 
in the propulsion. Also, we may observe how liga- 
ments and chords of the narrow angled joints suffer 
under the increased pressure, and how, after light 
exertions, all sorts of blemishes appear on the 
bones. Even, if the energy of the nobler part has 
been transmitted unimpaired, we see the other 
inheritance, the bad foundation, succumb under the 
too great demands of the former. 



46 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

If there exists in the formations a disproportion 
between fore and hind hand, the question arises, 
what kind of service will be required of the horse? 
For the carriage horse, a small superior roominess 
of the action of the hind legs will do no harm as 
it favors propulsion. For saddle use, such a horse 
is unfit, as, in this case, the fore hand is naturally 
overburdened, and will be quickly ruined. Only in 
exceptional cases, where powerful loins permit a 
transmission of the burden upon the stronger hind 
hand, the condition of the fore legs may be pre- 
served by careful riding. Otherwise, it is better to 
select for saddle use, a horse with less speed, but 
whose fore and hind hand are in perfect balance. 

The incorrect positions of the fore and hind legs, 
as we have seen before, combine in their relations as 
follows : 

(1) If both fore and hind legs are placed back- 
ward, the animal will easily lose its balance for- 
ward, will produce much pressure forward, but will 
be unsafe. It is only fit for draught, and will ruin its 
fore legs. 

(2) If fore and hind legs are placed forward, there 
will be but little propulsion. It will be a moderate 
carriage and a slow saddle horse. 

(3) If the fore legs are placed backward and the 
hind legs forward, that is, if all four legs are under 



THE SKELETON. 47 

the body ( produced by faulty formation of the angles 
but also occurring with hunchbacked horses), then 
the animal is unsafe as a saddle horse, has not the 
necessary propelling capability for a harness horse, 
and will " forge.'' 

(4) If the fore legs are placed forward and the 
hind legs backward (produced by bad formation of 
the angles, but also by considerable swayback), 
then the animal, whose fore and hind legs seem to 
act separately, is entirely unfit for saddle use and 
ly a very poor harness horse. 

THE EXAMINATION OF THE HORSE FROM THE FRONT 
AND FROM BEHIND. 

Thus far, we haye examined the horse from the 
side. Let us scan it now from the front and from 
behind. As difficult as it is to express in numbers 
the proportions of a horse's body, so difficult is it to 
say how broad a horse should be from shoulder point 
to shoulder point, and from hip to hip. The limits 
for greater width lie in the growiug weight of the 
rump, and in the disadvantages for the movements, 
as we will see later on. The limits of the narrow 
formation are fixed by the insufficient space for the 
chest and the vital organs enclosed therein, destined 
for respiration and circulation, as also by the insuffi- 
cient width from hip to hip, thereby offering 



48 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

insufficient play-room for the muscles of the hind- 
quarters to special disadvantage to the motive 
power. 

Under all circumstances, a horse should be equally 
broad in front and behind, and the front and hind 
hoofs should stand equally apart. In motion the 
legs of the same side should cover each other, and 
move parallel and at equall distances from an 
imaginary plane laid vertically through the spine. 

In all paces there is a more or less swaying motion 
of the body from side to side, as the different legs 
take their turn in supporting the weight. It is con- 
ceivable that, in slow gaits, especially in the walk, 
these swaying motions will take place in an increased 
way, and also, that the farther the legs are set 
apart, the farther sideward they have to push the 
burden, so that by great width of the frame, the 
motion of the animal must become swaying from 
side to side. But, through these swayings, time is 
lost for the forward movement, therefore speed must 
suffer by great width of frame. On the other side, 
the broad formation causes a safe basis, and the 
body will not easily lose its balance sideways. It 
affords safety in the turns and makes it easy for the 
animal to balance its own and the rider's weight in 
the stops and in gallop. 

In the narrow frame these deviations to the right 



THE SKELETON. 49 

and left are diminished, but the roominess of the 
motion is increased. Narrow built horses are easily 
thrown off their balance, and, therefore, offer less 
safety in turning; but they carry the turns out 
shorter and easier with the assistance of the dis- 
placement of the weight of the rider. It is very 
difficult for such horses to balance the weight 
in gallop and in stopping. 

Deviations from the normal width between fore 
and hind hand occur in the following combinations : 

(1) Broader behind than in front. If the difference is 
not too great, it has the advantage that, in the gallop 
and in stopping, the burden is supported on a broad 
basis, and that, in running, the hind legs pass by 
easily on the outside of the fore legs ; but, the chest 
being narrower, the saddle will slip forward on such 
horses, and the fore legs suffer frequently by 
their not balancing the weight properly, especially 
in the trot. 

(2) Broader in front than behind. Here we find, 
besides the already mentioned disadvantages of the 
narrow formation, the very serious defect that the 
hind legs cannot pass by the fore legs, and that, in 
sharp gaits, injuries to the latter are unavoidable. 
These horses are not fit for saddle use. 

Sometimes we find horses, though proportionately 
built in this respect, that do not follow with their 



50 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

hind legs in the direction of the fore legs, but swerve 
with both hind legs to one side. They travel like a 
dog, placing the axis of their motion diagonally to the 
line of travel. The cause is either great weakness 
or pain in the back. But, let there be no misappre- 
hension, many horses, from pain in the jaws, do 
the same thing, when under the saddle, but, when 
led by hand, go straight. 

The position of the limbs, seen from front or from 
behind, should be perpendicular throughout, so that 
the hip joint of the hind leg stands perpendicular 
over the basis of the hind hoof, and, the elbow joint 
of the fore leg, over that of the front hoof. The 
position of the bones of the fore leg, under normal 
conditions, must form a straight line through its 
entire length. 

The bones of a well-formed hind leg, looked at 
from behind, show, ou the contrary, an angular 
course interrupted by the joints. The thigh bone 
takes in its course downward and forward, an 
outward direction, so that the stifle joint falls 
sideways and outward of the perpendicular from the 
hip joint, and the horse appears broader in the stifle 
than in the hip. From the stifle joint, the leg bone 
runs in an oblique direction downward and inward, 
and connects through the hock joint with the shank 
bone. This latter stands again perpendicular, and, 



THE SKELETON. 51 

connecting with it, the pasterns. It is apparent that 
such combination of the bones is advantageous for 
the extending ability of the limb, as well as for the 
development of powerful muscles. 

In the hind legs we find the following deviations 
from these rules : 

(1) The points of the hock joint are placed 
narrowly together, and from here the shanks run 
down in an oblique and outward direction, so that the 
hock, as also the pastern (fetlock) joints, are not 
perpendicular over the basis of the hoof, The cause 
for this position is generally a turn of the whole leg 
around its longitudinal axis, the toe of the hoof 
beiug turned outward. The angle of the hock joint 
is, in this case, generally narrow, and the formation 
of the leg is called coiv-legged. As a consequence of 
the great extending ability of the bones, we 
observe in this formation, generally, a very roomy 
stride, though accompanied by an unsightly mowing 
motion of the leg. The motive power is likewise 
not sufficient, and, if the blemish is very pronounced, 
the hock joints are exposed to sprains of the 
ligaments. 

(2) The hind hoofs stand closer together than the 
hock joints — the so-called boiu-legged position. The 
toes are mostly turned inward, undergoing at every 
step of the leg, a still greater turn inward, at the 



52 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



Fig. 10a. 




THE SKELETON. 53 

same time throwing the hock joints outward. This 
formation indicates weakness of the limb, is very 
unsightly and unsafe, and the horse will interfer 
considerably. 

At the fore legs, we notice the following deviations 
from the perdendicular. 

(1) The hoofs are farther apart than the upper 
portions of the leg. The deviation, from the perpen- 
dicular, may begin at the elbow joint, or, lower down, 
at the knee or the fetlock joint. If, at the same time, 
a turn of the whole leg, around its axis, is connected 
with the deviations, and the toe of the hoof is turned 
outward, then it is called the dancingmaster position. 
Horses, with either of these deviations, show an 
irregular flourishing motion in bringing the leg 
forward, becoming in many instances the cause of 
interfering at the fetlock joints, especially if the 
shoeing is not properly executed. Light-built and 
narrow-chested blood horses frequently show this 
position, but without any disadvantages. In this 
case, the leg must show the deviation from the 
perpendicular, only from the fetlock joint down, and 
to a small degree. 

(2) The hoofs stand closer together than the width 
of the chest. If, at the same time, the toe of the 
hoof, or the whole longitudinal axis of the leg, is 
turned inward, the danger of striking is greater than 



54 ■ HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

in the former formations, and the disposition to 
sprains and lameness in the lower joints is aug- 
mented. 

HINTS TO THE PURCHASER OF A HORSE. 

Having examined those qualities of the horse, 
constituting his propelling powers, let us acquaint 
ourselves now with some advantages and resources 
for the judging of the whole framework. 

One of the first rules, in judging horses, is to place 
the horse on level ground. If the horse is placed on 
an incline, with legs stretched, it appears higher in 
front, the shoulders appear more oblique, the fore 
legs, even if already slightly knee-sprung and 
shaggy, look straight and safe; the back and the 
croup of the horse appear horizontal, the space 
between belly and ground gets smaller, and the 
distance between hind and front hoofs larger. A 
general comparison of the proportions must be the 
first step. A perfectly, regularly built horse should 
not make the impression of being remarkably tall 
nor remarkably small, else, there are in both cases, 
certain disproportions. A horse, appearing very 
tall, is generally long-legged and narrow-chested, 
while a horse, looking very small, is generally too 
long-bodied. 

The shape and size of the head is in itself very 



THE SKELETON. 55 

immaterial, and only of importance for the recogni- 
tion of the breed, or the character of the animal, 
but, on the other hand, fancy, or the reigning style, 
is entirely decisive, viz : considering at times a 
very small head, at other times a big head and a 
Roman nose as the prettiest. A big head is certainly 
not beautiful, but does by no means diminish the 
usefulness of the horse. If supported by a well 
set-up neck and powerful neck muscles, it will not 
fall so heavy upon the hand, as is generally believed. 

With the neck it is different ; set-up low on a 
straight shoulder, it will be carried low and flabby, 
and together with the head will overburden the 
fore hand. Especially, for the saddle-horse, is the 
formation and connection of the neck of deciding 
importance, and many an honest horse has been 
ruined by ignorant horse-breakers on account of 
insurmountable difficulties of the neck. 

An old custom, to draw conclusions on the quali- 
ties of a horse from the sharpness and firmness of 
the crest, may be mentioned here. The thickness 
of the fat layer, on which the sharpness of the crest 
principally depends, justifies a conclusion on the 
more or less firm texture of the other formations of 
the body. Firm textures is the inheritance of 
the nobler breeds. They also possess the dry, 
firm crest, the thin skin exhibiting the veins and 



56 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

stretching itself tight over the extremities, and the 
thin, soft hair of the mane and tail. Spongy 
and flabby forms, and an exuberant and heavy 
growth of hair are signs of the common breeds. 

The horse dealer tries to cover defects by shear- 
ing the fetlocks and throat, by pulling the mane and 
tail, by clipping, etc. 

Another custom, having also some justification, is 
that of lifting the tail. An energetic horse dislikes 
all experimenting about his body, and, therefore, a 
strong resistance from the horse against the lifting 
of his tail may be conclusive of the power of the back. 

For the judging of the chief proportions we will 
be materially assisted by some lines. (See Fig. 14, 
Skeleton of the Horse.) 

(1) Draw a horizontal line through the withers 
over the highest point of the croup ; 

(2) A line from the upper part of the elbow to the 
lower part of the stifle ; 

(3) Drop a line from the shoulder point to the 
ground, and extend the same upward to line 1 ; 

(4) Drop a line from the point of the ischium 
bone and extend upward to line 1. 

Line 1 serves to judge whether fore and hind hand 
are equal in height ; line 3 shows whether the fore 
legs, and line 4 shows whether the hind legs are cor- 
rectly placed under the body. 



THE SKELETON. 57 

Lines 1, 3, 4 and the ground form a square, divid- 
ed by line 2 in two almost equally high rectangles. 
The upper, somewhat smaller one, containing the 
rump, the lower one the extremities. 

The depth of the rump, from the spinal column to 
the breastbone, decides the dimensions of the chest. 
This depth corresponds with the arch of the human 
chest, and, like that arch, being far more im- 
portant for the free expansion of the lungs, 
than the width from shoulder to shoulder, so also 
has the depth of the chest of the horse more 
influence on the expansibility of the lungs, than the 
width of the chest looked at from the front. For 
the saddle-horse, in particular, does great depth of 
the chest warrant a good position for the saddle. 
The height of the upper rectangle finally decides the 
longitudinal proportions of shoulder and armbone, 
haunch and thigh bone, recognized so very important 
for free actions. 

The lower rectangle decides the relation of the 
length of the legs to their distance from each other. 
We have seen how important it is that the legs 
should cover much ground in motion. To accom- 
plish this, they need sufficient room, and, they can 
only find this, if the length of the rectangle is nearly 
twice that of its height. The more this figure re- 
sembles a square, the less will the animal be enabled 



58 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

to place its hind legs under the body, or to hold out 
long backward with its fore legs, without the legs 
being in the way of each other. Horses, of this 
build, are called long-legged, and, are neither fast 
nor enduring. 

To judge the obliqueness and horizontal exten- 
sion of the croup and shoulder, and their relation 
to each other, especially to the back, we drop : 

5, a line from the posterior edge of the shoulder 
and 

6, a line from the hip to the ground. 

That divides line 1 in three parts. The first part 
shows the length of the shoulder, the middle 
part that of the back, and the third part that of the 
group. The first and third part can never be too long, 
and the second part never be too short. By good 
proportions, these three parts in their succession, 
from front to rear, will be in the ratio of 7, 8, 9. The 
space between fore and hind legs cannot be too large, 
and the horse cannot be too long, providing the 
positions of the legs are correct, and the length of 
the horse is not brought about by a long back, but 
by the length of the shoulderpiece and that of 
the croup. " Short back and long horse " is the 
demand. 

After having examined the horse from the side, 
inspect it also from the front and rear, paying atten- 



THE SKELETON. 59 

tion to the proportions of his width in the hips and 
the shoulders, to the perpendicular position of the 
limbs, and to any deviations mentioned before. 
After this examination has been satisfactory, then 
examine the horse also in motion. Whips must 
disappear, exciting calls and noise must cease, and 
the man leading the horse be warned from jerking 
the horse under the cliin. If we notice, that by such 
practices, the regularity of the paces, especially that 
of the trot, is frequently and purposely interrupted, 
then we have to look out for hidden lamenesses. 
Light, easy and measured action, are signs of 
harmonious strength, cannot be valued enough, and 
should not be sacrificed for the prominent action of 
one single part. The roominess of the paces is 
discerned by observing the hind legs, the safety, 
by the action of the fore legs. The carrying 
power of the back, and the elasticity of the hock and 
pastern joints, are better judged under the rider, 
as, in general, we obtain a far better and correct 
judgment of the power and elasticity of the muscles 
and sinews, by mounting the horse ourselves. 

While riding the horse, we have an opportunity to 
examine the condition of his lungs or the wind as it 
is generally called. The wind is subject to many 
modifications. As it is a point of great impor- 
tance, in regard to usefulness, any horse, with the 



60 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

slightest imperfection of his lungs, should "be at 
once rejected. There are several degrees of damaged 
lungs, viz : thick ivind, roaring, wheezing and tvhistling, 
all of which degenerate finally into broken tvind 
and arise from disease or obstruction of some of the 
air passages of the lungs, the windpipe, bronchial 
tubes or nostrils. Such diseased horses cannot be 
cured, on the contrary they grow worse day by day, 
even by moderate work, until the horse is totally 
wind-broken and useless. 

Thick wind arises from insufficient space for the 
expansion of the lungs, or, for the expiration of the 
air through the bronchial tubes, owing to the thick- 
ening of the mucous lining in consequence of former 
inflammation. It is detected by the laborious 
breathing which often extends almost to suffocation 
and generally ends in broken wind. 

Roaring is a minor degree of thick wind, originat- 
ing from thickening of a portion of the mucous 
membrane within the windpipe, producing a con- 
traction of the same, thereby preventing the free 
expiration of the breath. It is detected by the 
exertion which causes the horse to expel the air 
producing a loud puffing or roaring sound — the in- 
spiration is noisless. It shows itself during excite- 
.ment or sudden motion. 

Wheezing is a modification of roaring, differ- 



THE SKELETON. 61 

ing from the latter, in that it can be noticed even 
if the animal is completely at rest and in the 
stable, it originates from the lodgment of mucous 
matter in the bronchical tubes. 

Whistling is also a modification of roaring and 
differs from the same in that it does not appear 
after excitement or sudden motion, only after 
lasting motion, and the noise it produces is more 
shrill. It originates from contraction of the larynx. 

Broken Wind originates from rupture of some of 
the aircells of the lungs, the inspiration being ef- 
fected readily by a single effort as usual, but the 
expiration requiring a double, and in very bad 
cases, even several efforts to expel the breath. 
When the horse is at work, this disease cannot be 
mistaken. A loud sobbing breath and the labor- 
ious heaving and jerking collapse of the flanks in- 
dicate this defect. It is accompanied by a hard and 
husky cough. This disease can never be cured. 

Horses, having any of these diseases become 
speedily exhausted by work and are absolutely un- 
sound. There are various ways to detect these 
defects. The usual way is to grasp the horse's 
throat from the front near the mouth of the larynx, 
compress the same forcibly so as to cause him 
to cough. A sound horse will cough but once and 
recover his breath with a clear deep inhalation 



02 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

and exhalation, while, in a diseased horse, we hear 
a broken rattling cough, the wind being recovered 
by a long laborious and wheezing effort. This 
sign is decisive and the degree of labor will show 
the more or less advanced degree of the disease. 

A roarer can easily be detected in the stable, as 
well as on the road, by the distressing sound he 
produces. Step into the stall of a roarer and ad- 
minister an unexpected sharp blow on the belly. 
A loud grunt will explain his condition. Under 
the saddle give him a long sharp gallop, pull him 
up suddenly and listen w T hile you incline forward 
and downward, bringing your ear close to the 
windpipe, or dismount quickly and put your ear 
close to the neck near the head. You will hear 
the whistling sound for some seconds and even 
minutes. In this way you may detect the disease 
in its smallest and most incipient stage. 

The examination of the eyes is most difficult 
and should better not be undertaken by the pur- 
chaser, but by an experienced veterinary surgeon. 

A very important — in fact a deciding point — in 
regard to the usefulness of a saddle or carriage 
horse, is the conformation of his jaivs, which should 
aever be negleoted in examining a horse. Every- 
thing satisfactory, but this part, the horse should 
be rejected as unfit for the purpose. The jaws 



THE SKELETON. 63 

should be diverging so as to make room for the 
throat. 

"We all wish our horse to look as stylish as pos- 
sible, the same time we want him to be light in 
hand. This can only be the case if the horse is able 
to arch his neck ; consequently there must be the 
necessary space for the throat to slip in between 
the jaws. 

A horse with parallel or converging jaws, will never 
be able, in spite of all bitting bridles, to give in his 
nose, as, in trying to do so, the edges of the jawbones 
press against the neck, squeezing in the glands 
and causing the horse intolerable pain. These 
glands are situated just under and inside of those 
edges, and, if cramped in, the free circulation of the 
blood is stopped, and, as they are also in connection 
with the eyes, such pressure frequently causes a 
rush of blood to the eyes or to the brain, followed 
by the horse running away, rearing, plunging, boring 
on the hand, etc. Many an accident could be traced 
back to such malformation. Thoroughbreds show 
this conformation very frequently, but, as in run- 
ning, they are allowed to stretch their neck, it does 
not matter. 

Adding to this malformation, a tight buckled 
throatlash, as we almost invariably find with 
saddle, as well as with carriage horses, it is simply 



64 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

astonishing that no more accidents happen. It is 
the utmost cruelty to the poor animal, to force his 
head by means of the reins into a position, which 
nature or a tight throatlash renders impossible to 
assume. Many of those artists, calling themselves 
saddle-horse trainers are in blissful ignorance of 
this fact. They kick and jerk the horse in all 
directions without the coveted result, — that is, secur- 
ing the nose and thereby the lightness in hand. 

In almost every private stable we can see a horse 
in a boxstall with a bitting rig on, and the poor 
creature vainly torturing itself, trying to put its 
neck, under the circumstances, in an impossible 
position. This speaks volumes of the utter ignorance 
of many of those in charge of horses. They should 
tie out the horse, first only lightly on one side, 
buckling the other rein just so much looser for 
the purpose of keeping the neck straight, thereby 
giving the horse a chance to flex this side gradually 
and, then, after fifteen minutes change sides. 
One hour's exercise at a time is sufficient. 
Continue this until the glands, which come out 
strong, disappear gradually under the jaw. In this 
manner, the horse would, after a time, be able to 
flex both jaws together ; but we generally see both 
reins tied as short as possible from beginning, no 
matter what agonies the horse suffers. If, under 



THE SKELETON. 65 

this pain, the horse gets restless, rears up and 
throws himself over, these individuals are utterly 
astonished and even quite indignant at the vicious- 
ness of that beast, and many are the blows he 
receives in the bargain. As long as horse-owners 
do not take more interest in their horses it is to be 
feared that such contemptible practices will not be 
stopped. 

The best way is, never to buy, for saddle or 
harness use, a horse whose jaws are not diverging. 

A few words about the il flying step" formerly so 
much favored. If, at a sharp trot, the fore leg is 
extended fully, the hoof pauses for a moment 
entirely, floating in the air, as it were, so that, 
observed from front, the sole of the hoof can be 
seen. The pausing of the hoof marks the moment 
when the propelling power of the hind leg comes to 
a premature end, being no longer able to throw 
the body to that place, where the hoof points. It 
forces the animal instead of carrying out the step to 
its full length, to draw the leg back. The flying 
step is, therefore, a useless waste of power, affecting 
muscles and sinews in a high degree. Experience 
shows that these horses cover very little ground. 

Just as ruinous is the " high knee action" so much 
in favor at present, and almost the sole considera- 
tion for the valuation of a carriage-horse. It is the 



66 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

same useless waste of power, affecting, not only 
muscles and sinews, but also attacking the joints 
considerably. Such horses also cover very little 
ground. The high knee action originates from too 
great length of the cannonbone in comparison to 
the length of the fore arm, and has nothing in 
common with the really beautiful high step-out of 
the shoulder, which, being supported by an 
energetic motive power of the hindquarters, will 
do its best for the safety and roominess of the 
action. 

Finally, we have to view the movements from 
front and from behind and to observe, whether the 
legs cover each other and are brought forward in a 
straight direction. 

The examination of the hoof is of the utmost 
importance, but it is beyond the limit of this little 
treatise to go into details. Be it said only that it is 
the more important to look for a sound hoof, if the 
horse is to be used on hard pavement. A brittle, a 
flat or a contracted hoof, in this case, disqualifies 
an otherwise good and serviceable horse. 

It is likewise impossible to discuss the numerous 
blemishes on the joints, bones, etc. If in 
consequence of irregularities in the structure, 
defects on the limbs have made their appearance, 
and in such places, apparently in consequence of 



THE SKELETON. 67 

those irregularities, have to sustain increased 
strain and are, therefore, most exposed to ruin, then 
there is a disposition to that defect. In this case, 
we may call it a necessary defect On the other side, 
blemishes not resulting from the structure, but 
brought about by casual injury, by overburdening 
or false distribution of the weight on the part of 
the rider, we may designate as casual defects. 

If a horse, whose weak fore legs succumbed un- 
der the throng of a superior hindhand, shows en- 
largement of the tendons, galls, or crooked knees, 
then such blemishes will be necessary ones. If we 
find the same blemishes on a favorably built fore- 
hand, and which is perhaps superior to the hind- 
hand, we may consider them as the results of casual 
events or brought about by a bad rider. They 
may not reappear in future. We see how differently 
we have to judge the same blemish on two different 
horses, how erroneous it is to regard every defect 
as serious and to insist on buying only a horse free 
of any blemish. 

The greatest skill, in judging horses, consists in 
letting pass a blemish at the right time. Never 
scruple about casual defects, not rendering the 
animal unserviceable, but take good care never to 
buy a horse affected with a necessary defect, even if 
ever so little developed. Examine carefully the 



68 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

weak parts for thickening of the skin, white hairs 
or a scar, indicating blistering or the hot iron. 
Finding the least thing, the proof is established that 
the respective part has succumbed under the exer- 
tion, and that the next exertion will result in the 
reappearance of the cured blemish. 

The great advantage to the dealer, in selling 
green and young horses, is that work has not 
marked as yet the defective and weak parts with 
blemishes on the bones. 

When the number of connoisseurs has so much 
increased that a four-year-old, clean-legged horse 
of faulty structure, would bring a far inferior price 
than an eight-year-old of good formation, even if 
affected with some casual blemishes, (a natural 
result of work); only then, when the breeder would 
find it impossible to dispose of those worthless 
creatures which are ruined after a two years use, 
and, if this sort would no longer pay the cost of 
rearing them, then such mares would no longer be 
used for breeding purposes, being cripples them- 
selves can bear nothing but cripples, and no stallions 
would be employed whose faulty and common 
structure must spoil the following generations. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST COMMON 
BLEMISHES ON THE LEGS. 

BLEMISHES ON THE FORE LEGS. Fig. 11. 

Splints (a) are bony tumors found on the inner 
splintbone, running down on the inner side of the 
cannonbone and are occasioned by violent blows or 
other injuries, sometimes causing lameness, if so 
close to the knee as to interfere with the action of 
that joint, or, so far back as to touch the back 
sinews. If located on the middle of the bone they 
are of no consequence. They will generally yield to 
blistering or puncturing. The tendency to splint is 
greatly increased by the practice of some black- 
smiths of raising the outer heel of the shoe con- 
siderably, thereby throwing the weight of the horse 
more on the inner splintbone. 

Tied in below the knee (6) is a serious defect, inter- 
fering with endurance and speed. Such horses 
are not fit for fast or long work as the result would 
be a serious sprain of the back sinews. The leg is 
insufficient in depth right under the knee. 

Sprain of the Back Sineivs (c) is an inflammation of 
the sheath of the back sinews, the result of wrench 



70 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



or spraiD, overwork or sudden and violent exertions. 
If the inflammation is very great, the horse suffers 
considerable pain and will be very lame. Back 
sinews, that have once yielded, can never again be 
depended upon. They are a serious defect and a 
sufficient obstacle against buying. 



5e ^VoF Corr\<> 




cowhrActec\ fee 



fig. 11. 
Windgalls (d) occur on both fore and hind legs 
and are puffy enlargements near the fetlock, caused 



THE SKELETON. 71 

by continued hard work, especially under the sad- 
dle, or by violent actions and straining of the sinews. 
They are not serious defects as they seldom produce 
lameness. 

Sidebones (e) are bony tumors on both sides of the 
lower pastern bone, just above the hoof, producing 
lameness, and are incurable. They are easily detect- 
ed by passing the hand carefully over the part. 
They generally spread rapidly around the foot, form- 
ing a complete ring, and are then called ringbones. 
They cause serious lameness and are signs of 
positive unsoundness. 

Mcdlenders (/) are scurfy eruptions in the bent of 
the knees. A discharge proceeds from them which 
must be taken care of at the start, as it is afterward 
very difficult to stop. They seldom produce lame- 
ness, but indicate bad stable management. 

Quarter crack (g) is a separation of the hornwall 
of the hoof from the coronet down to the sole and 
occurs on the inner side of the front hoof only. It 
is produced sometimes by violent actions on hard 
roads, especially if the nails are driven too tight, or 
the shoe is left too long on the hoof, in both cases 
preventing the expansion of the hoof. A burst 
of the wall must occur on the top of the hoof, or, 
it may occur in hot weather when the hoof becomes 
dry and hard and stopping the feet is neglected, 



72 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

which ought to be done twice or three times every 
week, but should be carefully removed before the 
horse goes to work, or, if the horn is naturally 
brittle. If the crack is only partial, it generally 
produces no lameness, but, if it extends all the way 
down to the sole, the case becomes serious. It 
takes a long time to grow down again, and the 
animal should not be used on hard ground. The 
horse should be shod in such a way that the injured 
part does not rest on the shoe so as to prevent 
pressure. 

Corns are found on the sole of the front hoofs, 
in the inner angle formed by the crust of the hoof 
and the bar, and are caused by contracted feet, or 
by pressure of the shoe, or by gravel lodged under 
the shoe. They are signs of neglect either from 
not removing the gravel or stone as soon as the 
horse returns to the stable, or from bad shoeing. 
They produce sometimes considerable lameness. 
Such horses are unsafe and should be rejected. 

Flat Hoofs. The sole, instead of forming an arch 
upward, as in a sound hoof, is perfectly level with 
the ground. If the sole is strong, the horse may 
perform his work well enough on smooth ground, 
but, on uneven, stony roads, they suffer great pain 
and are absolutely unsafe. They frequently degen- 
erate into full hoof The sole descends below the 



THE SKELETON. 73 

walls of the hoof. Such horses are unfit for any 
work, as the sole becomes very thin, causing the 
animal great pain at step. Such poor sufferers 
ought to be shot for mercy's sake. 

Contracted Feet. While the sole of the sound 
front hoof has a somewhat round shape, the con- 
tracted hoof has shrunken, presenting an irregular 
oval shape narrowed in at the heels, the inner wall 
of the hoof looking as if crushed in. It is produced 
by inflammation, arising from various causes, but, in 
most cases, by bad shoeing. The frog becomes nar- 
row and hard and has an unhealthy appearance. 
Contracted feet produce corns and frequently con- 
siderable lameness. 



BLEMISHES ON THE HIND LEGS. 

Fig. 12. 

Thorough pin (a) is an escape of the synovial fluid 
in the form of a swelling between the bones of the 
hock joint, above or below the hock, running across, 
and in front of the joint from side to side, but is 
seldom attended by lameness. It resembles bog and 
bloodspavin (e), which are located at the lower and 
anterior part of the hock joint. They are frequently 
found together, seldom causing lameness, but chiefly 
weakness and stiffness of the hock joint. The horse 
is able to perform ordinary work, but is unfit for 
hard and fast work, as the joint itself is affected. 

Capped Hock (b) is a swelling of the point of the 
hock in the form of a soft fluctuant tumor, and is 
produced through bruises by blows, or kicking in 
harness, or in the stall, or, by lying on a thin bed or 
on the bare floor. It is seldom accompanied by 
lameness, is very unsightly though easily removed. 

Curb (d) is an enlargement at the posterior side 
of the hock, about four fingers below its point, 
and is produced by sudden and violent action of the 
limb. For instance, after an extraordinary leap, a" 
sharp gallop over heavy ground, or a severe and sud- 






THE SKELETON. 



75 



den check from a gallop, cow-hocked horses are 
particularly liable to it. After their first appearance, 
they generally produce considerable lameness. 



Curb d 




FIG. 12. 

Cow-hocked means, if the hocks stand narrower 
together than the hoofs, the lower legs and the toes 
are turned outward. A slight inclination to this 



76 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

shape, in an otherwise powerfully built horse, is not 
objectionable ; but, in a horse decidedly cow-hocked, 
the weight is thrown too much on the inside of the 
hock, producing curb, spavin, and enlargement of the 
hock, generally attended by great lameness. 

Bone-spavin (c) is a bony tumor on the lower and 
exterior inner part of the hockjoint, and is discern- 
ible by looking, from front, backward. It may pro- 
duce total lameness, or only a severe lameness, at first 
starting, which may in time subside or disappear, 
according to the degree in which the bony excres- 
cence interferes with the motion of the joint. Many 
a spavined hunter stands his work without lameness. 
Other horses, again, merely show a stiffness at first 
starting, which disappears as soon as the horse gets 
warmed up, while others, with, perhaps, a very small 
bony tumor, are so desperately lame as to destroy 
their usefulness. Spavined horses are not fit for 
fast or regular work, as this lameness, producing 
great pain in rising, prevents many horses from 
lying down ; and a horse that cannot rest, cannot 
work. Blacksmiths frequently increase the tendency 
to spavin by raising the outer heel higher than the 
inner, with the object of preventing interference. 

Sallenders are a similar eruption as Mallenders^ 
nnd are located at the anterior bend of the hock or 
a little below it. 



THE SKELETON. 77 

Scratches first appear as a dry and scaly state of 
the skin of the heels, combined with redness, heat 
and itching, and should be attended to as soon as 
they make their appearance, because, if neglected, 
the heels begin to swell and crack open, emitting a 
thin glairy and very offensive discharge. They are a 
sign of bad stable management, through leaving the 
feet and heels wet after work on muddy roads and 
exposed to a cold draft. Sometimes they are caused 
by impure blood after sickness. 



THE AGE OF THE HORSE. 

Fig. 13. 

To cover every case, it is almost impossible to put 
down invariable rules for telling the age of a 
horse. There are exceptions, as for instance : a 
crib-biter will wear his teeth off faster than by the 
natural course, which is about } to i of an inch per 
year ; or of a thorough-bred horse, the strong struct- 
ure generally makes the teeth also stronger than 
those of a horse of a common breed of the same 
age, causing the horse to appear younger than he 
actually is. 

Horses change their first set of teeth, called the 
milk teeth, between the second and fifth year, for the 
second set, called the permanent teeth. During the 
first period of its life, up to five years old, the animal 
is called a colt. The second period comprises the time 
from five years upward, w r hen the animal has its 
permanent set of teeth. From this age it is called 
a horse. 

The milk teeth are different in shape from the 
permanent teeth, showing a well set-off body and 
neck, and, on their front surfaces, grooves which dis- 
appear from the centre nippers at the age of one 









THE AGE OF TH 





LOUSE (Fig. 13). 



THE AGE OF THE HORSE. 79 

year, from the nest pair at the age of two years, and 
from the corner nippers at the age of three years* 
The milk-teeth are replaced by the permanent teeth 
in the following order : 

(1) One to two weeks after birth the first two teeth 
(centre nippers) of the set of milk teeth appear in 
lower and upper jaw, (Fig. 13-1) which, at the age of 
two years, become loose and fall out, and in their 
places appear permanent teeth (No. 4) with deep 
cavities or marks and sharp edges. 

(2) About six weeks after birth, appear the next 
pair of milk teeth in both jaws, (No. 2), which fall 
out with three years old, and permanent teeth grow 
up in their place, (No. 5). 

(3) About eight months old, the last milk teeth, 
the corner nippers appear, (No. 3) which fall out at 
the age of four years, and the last permanent teeth 
make their appearance, (No. 6) so that with five 
j-ears old, the teeth are all in line and the horse has 
his permanent set of teeth. 

The teeth grow every year from l to i of an inch, 
but are worn away at the same ratio by use, so that 
with — 

Six years old the black cavities or marks have 
disappeared from the centre nippers. 

Seven years old the black cavities or marks have 
disappeared from the next pair. 



80 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

Eight years old the black cavities or marks have 
disappeared from the corner teeth. 

With eight years the upper and lower corner teeth 
just meet. 

At nine years old the marks disappear from the 
upper centre nippers, and also each of the upper 
corner teeth shows a sharp protrusion at the extreme 
outer corner. 

At ten years old the marks disappear from the 
next pair of the upper jaw. 

At eleven years old the marks disappear from the 
next corner teeth of the upper jaw. 

The teeth, which up to this age have an oval shape, 
become broader and rounder, and change, between 
the 12th and 16th year, to a triangular shape. From 
the 16th year, they lose all regular shape, and the 
age can only be guessed. 

The tushes or tusks in male horses are cut be- 
ween the 3d and 4th year of age, are conical in shape, 
somewhat curved and sharp pointed, but are worn 
down, with the advancing age of the horse, to a more 
and more rounded form, and finally lose all regular 
shape. 

Mares generally have no tusks at all, or only 
faintly visible tushes. 




6 

O 
H 

a 



RAREY'S AND ROCKWELL'S METHODS OF 

TRAINING YOUNG AND OBSTINATE 

HORSES. 

(1) INTRODUCTION. 

Rarey's and Rockwell's methods, being decidedly- 
superior to other methods, are based on an exact 
knowledge of the individuality and the peculiar 
nature of the horse. Therefore, and because they 
are the result of many experiments, and because of 
a close scrutiny of the different methods heretofore 
in use, they deserve to be pronounced the best. 

Before proceeding any further, it will be necessary 
to make the reader aware of a wide-spread mistake 
in the taming of wild and vicious horses, viz : 

(2) FALSE VIEWS OF THE HABIT OF HORSES TO SMELL 
AT UNACCUSTOMED OBJECTS. 

There exists a prevalent opinion amongst horse- 
men, that the scent is the leading sense of the horse. 
Based on this opinion, Foucher and other horse- 
tamers, have recommended that strong smelling oils 
and other substances be blown into horses, nostrils 
for the purpose of training them. Other ways are, to 
blow in the breath, or to moisten the hand with the 
perspiration from under the arm and to hold it 



82 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

under the horse's nose. All these means have, so 
far as the scent is concerned, no effect whatever 
upon the taming of the horse or the possibility of 
making it do a certain thing. 

Rarey, whose opinion we consider decisive, 
because consonant with nature, says : 

" As the horse has a habit of touching with its 
nose everything new to him, one might believe that 
it smells at it, but, I believe, that the horse 
uses its nose as we use our hands, for the purpose 
of touching the object, because the nose is the only 
organ, that enables it, to touch with an acute feeling, 
any object. I believe, that the horse uses the 
four senses : seeing, hearing, smelling and feeling — 
the sense of feeling being, perhaps, the most import- 
ant — in all his examinations, and, that the slow 
approach of the horse, and the final touching of the 
object with the nose, is frequently done for feeling's 
sake — the sense of smelling being so well developed 
as not to necessitate the touching with the nose, to 
find out the peculiar smell of an object." 

As we cannot give any reason then, why a horse 
should comprehend, by the sense of smelling, what 
we want of him, therefore, the use of strong smells 
is useless for the training of the untamed horse. 
Only by words and sounds are we able to influence 
it, to submit to our demands, of its own free will 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 83 

without using force. Through the smells alone, we 
can never teach a horse anything ; the actions alone, 
accompanying such means, as : touching, caressing, 
speaking, must bring about the desired result, 
erroneously ascribed to such narcotics. The habit 
of the horse to touch objects is simply an emanation 
of its peculiar instinct to examine everything. 

Rarey's method is applicable, not only to horses 
afraid of man, but also, to such that are vicious and 
obstinate, and therefore, being more in need of 
training than wild horses. 

Earey, who claims to have tamed horses often- 
times at less than one hour's time, bases his success 
on his skill to inspire the animal with fear, love and 
obedience. 

(3) FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF BAREYS THEORY. 

First Principle : The horse is naturally obedient 
and offers no resistance to any demand, if put to him 
in a manner appropriate to his nature and compre- 
hension. 

This principle is based upon the fact, that the 
horse, though possessed of a strength far superior 
to that of man, is docile, because it has neither 
reason nor power of judging, therefore, no concep- 
tion of right or wrong, or of acts based on a free will. 
If it had the faculty of reasoning, it would come to 



84 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

conclusions, making it entirely unfit for the service 
of man. 

Second Principle : The horse has no perception of 
its own strength, therefore it is submissive without 
opposition to our will, as can be seen daily. 

Third Principle : As the horse, according to its 
nature, examines everything new to him, it will per- 
mit to be placed, before, over, or on it, any object 
ever so frightful, without creating any fear, provided 
it causes him no pain. 

A white stone, the stem of a tree on the road-side, 
looks strange and suspicious, and he refuses to pass 
by. If we guide him up to the object, permitting 
him to stop a minute and examine the same with 
his nose, the terror will pass away and he will 
become reconciled. Examples are military horses, 
which are not afraid of the noise of arms, drum, 
music, or even firing. 

The above mentioned principles, based on a nat- 
ural perception of the individuality of the horse, 
may look insufficient and inappropriate only to 
those who shut their eyes to nature which governs 
the instinct of animals. Such persons strive in vain 
to reach by circuitous ways, what they could accom- 
plish by careful observation of the peculiarities 
of all creatures and by taking advantage of their 
weaknesses. Wherein consists the superiority of 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAILING METHODS. 85 

man over the beasts, and what are the means to 
subjugate powerful animals ? Neither the dexterity 
of man nor his strength, nor the power of his eye, 
would alone be sufficient to subdue them, if besides 
these agents, there were no other means at his 
disposition. But these means are not the fire-arms, 
the chain, or the cage. They are of a spiritual 
nature, founded on the ability to penetrate into the 
character, into the whole nature of the animals and 
their wants, to find out their inclinations and to 
gain their love. But, this latter must be coupled 
with fear. It is undeniable, that by kind treatment, 
speaking, and dainties, we are able to pacify the 
liveliest horse for a time, but, on the other hand, 
there are also moments, when only whip and spur 
can subdue a refractory horse and make him feel 
the superiority of man — means which, of course, 
should only be employed as a last resort. If not 
applied at the proper moment, or in a well 
measured degree, they will render the horse 
obstinate and, under circumstances, entirely un- 
serviceable. 

As none of all the secret means, recommended in 
books for the taming of horses, is in correspondence 
with their nature and not lastingly effective, there is 
no other way to educate the horse, according to his 
nature, than that guided by the above principles, in 



86 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

connection with the manipulations described further 
on. 

In the simpleness of the system, based on the 
most rational principles, rests the guarantee for the 
practical execution and the success. Under all cir- 
cumstances, in handling a horse, preserve your 
temper, no matter how provoking, for, if you lose 
control of yourself, you will be sure to lose control 
of your charge, The horse must be governed by 
kindness and determination, not by abuse and 
tyranny. 

4— APPLICATION OF RAREY's PRINCIPLES FOR WILD AND 
SHY HORSES. 

For the application of the principles laid down in 
the preceding chapters, Rarey says : 

"Provided with a long whip, topped by a silk 
snap, so as to crack loud, step into the enclosure 
where the horse is, stand still, allowing it to look at 
you a few minutes. If it stands still, move up to it 
slowly, the right arm holding the whip stretched 
down at your side, while the left, bent in the elbow 
with the hand stretched forward, is held out toward 
the horse. In this position, approach the horse 
slowly, but not too directly, toward its head or back, 
so as to prevent its moving forward or backward ; 
but, in case that should happen, step carefully a 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 87 

little aside, so as to cause it to stay where it is. 
The nearer you approach, the more move toward 
its shoulder, and then stand still a few seconds. As 
soon as you come near enough, the horse will 
turn its head and smell at the extended hand, not 
because it has a special liking for that hand, but 
because that part of its master's body is nearest 
to it. As soon as that occurs, or the horse is 
touching any other part of your body, caress it 
by stroking it in the direction of the hair, in a 
tender and soft way, moving your hand as light as 
possible along the neck and the side of the head. 
Every attempt of the horse to touch you with its 
nose is to be favored, every touching of your body 
to be rewarded by tender caresses, kind looks, and 
gentle w r ords. 

In speaking to the horse, always use the same 
tone of voice, because it learns very soon to distin- 
guish, by the expression of the face and the tone of 
the voice, what feelings govern its master. 

5 — rarey's method of training obstinate horses. 

In taming wild horses it becomes necessary to 
gain their lacking confidence, while with horses 
being only stubborn and restive, turning around and 
kicking at any attempt to approach them, the neces- 
sary respect and fear must be established. T]\ere- 



88 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

fore, it is expedient, so as to facilitate the handling, 
to give it a few sharp cuts with the whip around 
the legs close up to the body. The cut, applied there, 
has more effect than two or three cuts over the back, 
the skin on the inside of the leg being thinner and 
more sensitive than on the back. If punishment be- 
comes necessary, for the purpose of inspiring the 
horse with fear and of breaking his obstinacy, not for 
the purpose of inflicting pain, we must take care 
not to administer only one cut, as that would only 
produce anger instead of fear, thereby increasing 
the vice. As soon as the horse shows fear enough, 
causing him to stand still and to pay attention to 
you, approach him again and flatter him more than 
you before whipped him, thereby awakening in him 
the two chief factors to his submission : fear and love y 
and he will willingly do what you demand of him. 

6— THE HANDLING OF UNTRAINED HORSES. 

Before making the reader acquainted with the 
special rules and manipulations, necessary for the 
handling of untrained horses, it is important to im- 
press upon him the following rules, experience 
proving that success can only be attained by adher- 
ing to them. 

To remove the terrors, of which the horse is 
possessed by coming in contact with man, and 
to create love and confidence to the latter, it 



RARE! AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 89 

becomes imperative to converse with the animal 
during the exercises, by speaking, coaxing, etc., and 
by increasing these caresses, if the horse permits. It 
is absolutely necessary, at first, to be alone with 
him, in some enclosed space, taking care that no 
object of any kind diverts his attention from his mas- 
ter, or frightens him or makes him shy. Every at- 
tempt of the horse, to touch you with his nose, or to 
smell at yon, is to be humored, and great care must 
be taken, not to change the tone of the voice or the 
expression of the face, at moments of displeasure, 
the horse understanding quite well, whether anger 
or love for him govern you, the former alarming and 
estranging him from you. 

Never be hasty in the exercises and never proceed 
to anything new, before the horse has perfectly un- 
derstood the present lesson, and he fully understands 
those exercises and full confidence is established be- 
tween him and his master. Never tire the horse out, 
never ride him warm. As soon as you notice one 
or the other, caress him and give him rest. By such 
proceedings, you can avert the horse from getting 
vicious and obstinate, and render him a very will- 
ing and intelligent pupil. 

7— PUTTING THE HALTER ON THE COLT. 

Place yourself on the left side of the colt ,near the 
shoulder, put both arms around its neck, and hold 



90 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

the head of the animal toward you. Taking in!o 
your right hand, first, only that part going over its 
head, slip the halter, with your left hand, gently over 
the nose of the colt, taking care that he does not 
start back, if the hand is placed over the same. As 
soon as the halter is put on, fasten to it a long strap 
or rope, and make the colt walk around the enclo- 
sure, without pulling at him. As soon as he feels the 
hand on the halter, having full play on the line to 
stride forward, he will never pull, tug, rear, nor throw 
himself down, which he would be sure to do, if held 
by force at one place. The animal, not aware of his 
strength, does not know that he could easily break 
the halter, and he will never make use of his strength, 
if not provoked by tugging and jerking. 

If the colt submits to being held by a short line, 
and, without shying, permits you to approach, 
proceed to make him tractable. For this pur- 
pose, do not step in front of the animal, trying to 
pull it after you, but try to guide it to one side. 
It will follow a gradual pull on the halter to that 
side, not being able to offer much resistance with its 
neck. As soon as it has made a few steps sideward, 
caress and repeat the manoeuvre, until you can 
guide it in any direction. 

By repeated practising, and by the increasing love 
to its master, gained through gentle intercourse, it 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 91 

will soon understand that it has to follow him, and 
that the more so, as it does not know, that on ac- 
count of its strength, it need not follow. Before 
leading the horse out of the enclosure, lead it first 
around for a little while and then, opening the door, 
lead it past the same a few times, finally guiding it 
slowly through the door, by taking hold of the hal- 
ter with your left hand close to the mouth, while 
the right hand, resting on the neck, grasps the mane. 
After a short time, you may gently guide it, as you 
please. It will always willingly come up to you. 
Care must be taken, that no objects are near that 
may cause it to shy, and that no other person be 
present, to divert its attention. 

8 — TO TRAIN THE COLT TO GO AT THE SIDE OF 
A TRAINED HORSE. 

For this purpose, take a trained horse into the 
stable, and put the colt at his right side. Fasten a 
second strap to the halter of the young horse, pull 
that across the breast of the old horse, which should 
be mounted first, and take the end into your left 
hand. If you then take the other strap into your 
hand, the latter strap will prevent the stepping too 
far forward, the former, the hanging back. In this 
manner, guide the horses around in the stable a few 
times and then go out of doors. In case of the 



92 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

stable door being too narrow for both horses to pass 
through, at the same time, guide the old horse out 
first, turn it around so as to face the door, then, bring 
the colt near the door, take hold of the straps as de- 
scribed before, let somebody urge the colt out gently, 
turn the old horse to the left and everything is again 
in good order. The above straps are sufficient to 
keep the head of the young horse turned toward the 
old one, so as to control it. Should it become ob- 
stinate, refusing to go on, turn the old horse toward 
the right, that is, against the neck of the colt, com- 
pelling it to turn a few times, when it will be willing 
to stride forward again. 

After having taught the young horse to be guided, 
take it back to the stable and tie it so that it cannot 
tug on the halter. If the young horse refuses to 
follow the old one, which has been taken in the sta- 
ble first, take hold of the halter with your left hand 
near the head, place your right hand, armed with a 
whip, over the back of the colt, direct its head 
toward the stable door and administer a light cut 
with the whip as far back as possible. The cut 
coming from behind and from the other side, the 
colt will move forward and to that side where his 
master is. All the master has then to do, is to give 
with his left hand, the proper direction, and it will 
mo into the stable without further trouble. 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 93 

Should it not be possible in this way to get the 
colt into the stable, lead it around in all directions, 
stopping occasionally at the door, and it will not 
take ten minutes before it will enter. Never try to 
pull a young horse into the stable by force, as it 
would learn to regard the stable as a dangerous 
place. 

9 — TO TIE THE YOUNG HORSE, WITHOUT ITS PULLING 
AT THE HALTER. 

The young horse should be fastened in a stall, 
rather wide, but not too long, so that, on account of 
a movable crossbeam, fastened at a short distance 
behind the colt, it is not able to step back enough 
to tug at the halter in a straight direction backward. 
If the animal is then tied in the middle of the stall, 
the halter will prevent its turning far to the right or 
left, and, compelled to stand quiet, it will, even if 
tied by a light strap, never try to break it. 

Rockwell's method to cure horses from pulling at 
the halter, is first, to place a common halter on him ; 
put then a common girth. Take a half-inch rope, 
about twenty feet long, pass the centre of this rope 
under the tail in place of a crouper, twist the rope 
over a couple of times, pass the ends of the rope 
under the girth, bringing one end up on each side of 
the neck and pass the ends under the girth and 



94 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



through the nose-piece of the head stall, under 
the cheek pieces, and tie to a stout post, leaving 
about three feet play of rope. As soon as the 
horse pulls back, he, being tied by the tail to the 
post, pulls upon his tail, Fig. 15, and the hurt 




Fig. 15. 

coming from there, instead of the head, where 
he expected it, he will start forward, it being natural 
to go from the hurt. There is no danger accom- 
panying this, and if he is in the habit of pulling 
at night, this arrangement may be left on, without 
fear of the horse getting tangled in the rope. Com- 
mon sense will show you, that, as there is no pull 
upon the head, and consequently no hurt there, he 
will soon cease pulling and lose the habit. To make 
the lessons still more effective, you may cause him 
to pull, by using such exciting means as are apt ta 
alarm him. 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL' S TRAINING METHODS. 95 
10 — BRIDLE PULLING — (ROCKWELL). 

Put a rope on the tail in the same manner as in 
halter pulling, except that you pass the ends through 
the rings of the bridle, and tie him to a post where 
he is in the habit of pulling — unhitching the wagon, 
if one was attached. Step away and frighten him by 
whatever is apt to cause him to pull. As he pulls, 
the pressure coming upon the tail, he will step up to 
the post. Take hold of the rope between the post 
and his head and give it a few pulls back and forth. 
By these means, he will learn to step forward rather 
than to step backward. After a few lessons, he may 
be tied by a common tie-strap, the end, however, 
passing through the ring of the bridle bit and being 
tied to the back strap. Do this until you are satis- 
fied you have effected a cure. 

11 — PUTTING ON THE BIT, (AFTER RAREY). 

A smooth but thick joint bit, with bars on either 
side, is the most proper for a young horse. This bit 
must be buckled into the head stall of the bridle at 
first without reins, checks and blinkers, and the 
horse be allowed to walk around free, in a large 
space, until he gets used to it, so as to make no 
attempt to free himself of the bit. These proceed- 
ings are to be repeated a few times, before going any 
further. Put, also, a halter over the bridle, as the 



96 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

young horse will be more willing to be guided by the 
halter strap than by the bit, which it is not accus- 
tomed to as yet. 

12— TO GET THE COLT USED TO THE BIT, (AFTER 
ROCKWELL). 

Place on the colt an ordinary head stall with a 
joint bit without any check strap or reins. Leave 
him in the stable, or yard, for a short time, then re- 
move the bit. Frequently replace it and allow it to 
remain on for a short time. By this means, which is 
a great improvement on the old waj r of puttiug on 
the bitting bridle at once, his mouth becomes used 
to the bit. After a few times doing this, the colt 
will be ready for 

13 — THE BITTING BRIDLE, (ROCKWELL). 

For this, first prepare a well-padded leather girth, 
with a large ring firmly riveted on to the centre of 
the girth, over the back and three buckles, six inches 
apart from each other and the ring. Put on a 
common riding bridle or head stall without blinds, 
and, under all circumstances, use a joint bit, gag 
runners (loops) being well placed up towards the ears, 
and the throat lash made large and to buckle very 
loose under the gag runner. The side-straps to be 
about six feet long with a snap at one end and holes 
for the buckle tongue at the other. Fasten the strap, 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 97 

with the snap, to the ring in the centre of the girth 
pass the other end of the strap through the gag run- 
ner on the near side of the horse, passing it from 
toward the nostrils back through the ring of the bit. 
Draw it tolerably light and fasten in the buckle. 
Do the same on the offside. You will see that by 




Fig 16. 
fastening the strap well up toward the ring in the 
centre, it will compel him to hold his head high 
and throw the nose out. By fastening them well 
down on the side, it will lower the head and curve 



98 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

the neck, at the same time giving him the power to 
move the head up and down with perfect ease. 
In cases, where bitting is required only for the 
purpose of suppling and developing the muscles 
of the neck, this bridle should be used, as no horse 
being geared in this bridle will be injured, in case 
of falling backward. 

14 — BITTING THE COLT, (ROCKWELL). 

In placing the bitting bridle upon the colt, great 
care should be taken not to buckle the straps tight 
at first, as you might give pain, and alarm the ani- 
mal. Be particular to have the throat-lash quite 
loose, so that it will not choke him. Many horses 
have been ruined by carelessness in this particular. 
In gearing him up, care should be taken, that the 
check is not too tight at first, lest he should, in rear- 
ing, go over backward and fall on the top of his head. 
Another reason is, that he will yield more readily to 
the side reins. The checking up should be governed 
by the length and form of the neck and shoulders. As 
soon as the colt shows a disposition to yield, the bridle 
should be removed or the straps loosened. This 
should be done within at least five minutes from the 
time it is put on. The oftener it is taken off and re 
placed for the first three days, the better. Do not 
however remove it while the colt is sulky and refus- 
ing to move his head. A lesson here to be taught 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 99 

hini, is, that he cannot be loosened from the restraint, 
while he is resisting it. This will prove useful in all 
future dealings with the animal. Should he prove un- 
usually stubborn and refuse to yield, you may make 
use of what we denominate the " Yankee Bridle" It 
consists of a common bridle head stall and a jointed 
bit with double rings, Fig. 17. Fasten the cheek 




Fig. 17. 

pieces of the head stall to the loose rings on either 
side and the reins or rope to the rings of the bit. 

In using this bit on a refractory horse, take a rope 
about ten feet long, tie one end to the near side ring 
of the bit, pass the other end, under the jaw, through 
the offside ring of the bit, then bring the rope over 
the neck from the off side to the near side, placing 
it about where the collar usually comes. Then pass 
it down the near side, and through and over that 
portion of the rope which is between the two bit 
rings under the jaw. Now as you tighten upon the 
rope, see Fig. 18, you will perceive that the tendency 
of the two rings, attached to the cheek pieces, is to 
play loosely upon the bit and to move toward the 



100 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



centre or joint of the bit, and that they will conse- 
quently press tightly upon the cheeks. The sensation 
which this pressure occasions, you may illustrate, by 
pressing inwardly upon your own cheeks with your 




Fig. 18. 

mouth partially opened. The effect upon a horse is 
instantaneous and irresistible. It cannot injure 
and is a safe and reliable controlling power. 

15 — SADDLING THE HORSE, (RAREY). 

Iii putting on the saddle, take care that the stir- 
rups do not hang down so as to touch the 
horse, thereby irritating and frightening him* 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL* S TRAINING METHODS. 101 

Sling a knot in the stirrup straps, put the saddle 
flaps together, take the saddle under your right arm, 
and walk slowly up to the horse. As soon as you 
are near enough, lift the saddle up gradually, and 
while caressing the animal, let him touch and look 
at it. Then open the saddle flaps and stroke the 
horse with the saddle gently, along the neck, to make 
him accustomed to the noise made by the pushing 
to and fro of the saddle. By and by, do the same 
with the saddle farther back, until you may finally 
put it over his shoulders and gently down on his 
back. Shake the saddle flaps and keep busy about 
the saddle, take it off again, put it right on again 
and the horse will no longer offer any resistance. 

Before these manipulations, examine the padding 
of the saddle so as to protect the horse's back from 
becoming galled by the saddle, then fasten it 
by means of the girths, quite loosely, just enough 
to hold it in place. To avoid frightening the horse, 
by fastening the girths, it is absolutely necessary to 
remove everything disturbing, for instance : loose 
tangling straps, etc. Put the straps, as gently as 
possible, around the horse, not pulling them tight, 
and lead the horse about. 

After he gets a little used to the saddle on his 
back, tighten the girths slowly, as much as necessary, 
without irritating the animal. Take a whip in your 



102 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

right hand, put your right arm over the saddle, and 
taking up the reins on both sides of the neck, with 
the right and left hands, walk the horse around until 
he gets sufficiently used to the reins and that you may 
turn and stop him by gently pulling the reins. As soon 
as he stands still, loosen the reins slightly. Always 
bear in mind to execute all these preparations with 
no other person present, but in a large stable, 
or some other enclosed space, where there is no 
danger of getting hurt in mounting the horse after- 
ward. It is essential that you should talk to and 
caress the horse during and after every exercise. In 
this way you will accomplish more in hours than 
otherwise in months. 

16 — MOUNTING THE HORSE, (RAREY). 

Having adjusted bit, reins, and saddle, the horse 
is ready to be mounted. Before you actually mount 
him, prepare him properly by caressing and stroking 
him on both sides of the saddle and over the whole 
body, and then gently and gradually make him ac- 
customed to a pressure upon his back and to receive 
the weight of his master. This end you will not 
reach untill all fear is removed, and the animal has 
learned to stand still without being held, and not to 
get alarmed at the sight of the rider wherever he 
may be. The best way, to accustom the horse to 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 103 

the weight of the rider, is to mount from a block of 
one to one-and-a-half feet high. As the horse is 
watching every change in the position of his master 
and is very apt to. get alarmed by his suddenly 
jumping on the block, get on the block very slowly, 
allowing the horse to see you in the position of first 
having only one foot on the block, being the same 
position as when mounting the horse. If the horse 
does not show any fear, let the stirrups down gently, 
put the left foot in the stirrup, taking care not to 
touch the horse with the toes under the shoulder. 
The knee should be close to the saddle, the left hand 
taking hold of a lock of the mane, the right hand 
placed on the cantle of the saddle. Lifting yourself 
up a little from the block, let the horse gradually 
feel the whole weight of your body, first on the stir- 
rup, then in the saddle. Be very careful in doing 
that, for it is the critical moment, and if done too 
rashly, it may spoil the animal for a long time. Re- 
peat this exercise several times, each time lifting 
yourself a little higher. 

The reason, for mounting from a block, is that the 
horse will not feel the weight of the rider at once, 
but gradually, and, besides, the rider is not com- 
pelled to spring, to get into the saddle, and lastly, 
the horse will gradually become accustomed to the 
high position, in which he will afterward see his rider. 



104 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

17 — RIDING THE HOESE, (rAREY). 

As the fear of the horse is not entirely allayed yet, 
and it being easily alarmed and irritated by new im- 
pressions and unwonted handling, it is apparent that, 
to cause it to move on, the rider should not attempt 
to urge it forward by kicking it in the sides with 
his heels. Better caress and speak to him, and if 
he does not go forward then, turn him a little to the 
left, until he begins to move, permittiug him to 
move slowly and with loose reins. Continue in this 
manner until the horse has walked around the en- 
closure for a few times and got used to the bit and 
reins, permitting you to guide and stop him at your 
pleasure. This exercise should not last longer than 
half an hour so as not to annoy him. Repeat the 
same twice a day for a few days. In dismounting, 
and taking off the saddle and bridle, use the same 
precaution, not to alarm the horse. Withdraw 
your right foot slowly from the stirrup, with the 
left hand take hold of the mane and reins, lift your 
leg slowly over the croup, being careful not to touch 
the horse with the boot, and let yourself slowly 
down to the block or ground, all this time speaking 
to the horse. Repeat mounting and dismounting 
several times during each lesson. 

After a few days the horse will be quiet, and it 
will then be time to take him outdoors. There it will 



RAREY AND KOCKWELL S TRAINING METHODS. 105 

naturally be inclined to gallop, to jump, and to shy, 
and care should be taken to remove every object apt 
to excite the animal. 

In mounting the horse outdoors, take the left rein, 
short, so as to enable you to hold him and to draw 
his head toward you in case he should shy or step 
sidewards. 

If the horse entirely refuses to move on, after the 
rider is in the saddle, turn his head to one side 
and thus the horse several times around in a circle. 
If then let loose, he will without using the whip, 
be glad to move forward. 

It is quite improper to use a martingale at the first 
lessons of the horse under saddle, as the animal 
will more willingly submit to the guidance of the 
hand, if the pull of the rein comes in a straight line, 
as if that direction were broken by the martingale. 
The use of a martingale may only then be justified, 
if the horse carries his head too high, or stretches 
his nose too far out. 

18— RIDING THE HORSE, (ROCKWELL). 

This should not be done before the horse is well 
bridle broken. Begin the lesson in the barn or yard. 
Place on him a common riding bridle without girth 
or martingale. Tie the bridle reins together on top 
of the neck, tight enough to check him just a little. 



106 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

Stand on the near side, near the shoulder, tie 
strap across the withers, near where the reins 
lie. Quietly r.ach down in front and caress the 
fore legs, and as soon as the horse is sufficiently 
calmed, tie the strap to the off leg, just below 
the fetlock. If he is restive and prevents you from 
tying it, or shows signs of striking or kicking, take 
him by the head and tail, the left hand well up to 
the head, and whirl him around two or three times, 
and while he is disconcerted by this movement, 
stoop and tie the strap. Then take hold of the in ar 
rein, within about four inches of the head, and with 
the right hand draw up the strap so as to pull the 
foot clean from the ground, at the same time, pulling 
on the rein toward you, quite firmly, until he has 
made two or three hops on three legs. The points, 
to be gained by this, are : first, you teach the colt 
that he is not to be hurt and that he cannot get 
away. This tends to prevent his plunging when you 
afterward attempt to ride him. Second, by putting 
the strap across the back, it accustoms him to bear 
a weight upon his back. Third, it prevents him from 
throwing himself over backward. Fourth, it accom- 
plishes your desire in a safer and quicker way than 
any other known. Now take a shorter hold on the 
strap, with the foot held up, passing your right arm 
well over his back, with the left hand take hold of 






RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 107 

the reins and mane near the withers, and then make 
the motion of mounting. Do this a few times until 
the colt gets accustomed to the new positions and 
movements. Then gently mount him, the foot being 
still held up. Now let down the foot and start him 
along. If he shows signs of being restive, or at- 
tempting to throw you, pull up the foot and caress 
him. He will not fall down while the foot is up, as 
it might be supposed he would. Keep well hold of 
the foot strap, untie the knot in the reins and letting 
down the foot, commence turning him from side to 
side and urging him forward. If he is unwilling to 
start, take a whip into the same hand, with which 
you hold the foot strap, and gently touch him with 
it on the off hind leg, just back of the stifle, gradually 
increasing the blows until he starts, at the same 
time loosening the reins. In turning him, use cau- 
tion, and do not pull upon but one rein at a time, for 
the reason, that, if you pull on both, the colt will be 
apt to run backward, sideways, or otherwise act awk- 
wardly. Do not ride him very far the first time. 
This lesson with the foot strap should be repeated 
three or four times, until the colt is accustomed to 
your presence upon his back, and to your legs against 
his side. Having never been thrown from a colt, 
since I adopted this plan, I firmly believe that no 
better method of training the colt to ride, is known. 



BREAKING THE HORSE TO HARNESS. 

19 — HARNESSING THE HORSE, (ROCKWELL). 

The same precautions should be used as in sad- 
dling the horse. After the harness is put on care- 
fully, put on a bridle without blinds, and walk him 
around the yard, or allow him to remain in the stable 
for about half an hour, to become accustomed to the 
rattling of the straps and the feeling of the harness 
in these unwonted positions, then remove the har- 
ness. After a while, put the harness on again for a 
short time, and again remove it a few minutes 
after. The third time you harness the horse, pass 
the traces through the rings of the breeches and tie 
them, drawing the traces and the breast collar pretty 
snugly together against the body. After a little 
while, you may commence to drive him with the 
reins, turning him in different directions and gently 
urging him forward, impressing upon him the fact, 
that you control him, thus teaching him to obey the 
reins and to go without leading. Be careful each time 
to repeat the word " zvhoa " at the same moment you 
pull on the reins to stop him. This exercise usually 

108 



BREAKING THE HORSE TO HARNESS. 109 

occupies three clays' time. As soon as lie appears 
handy with the reins, you are then ready for 

20— HITCHING UP THE COLT, (ROCKWELL). 

If possible avoid hitching him up, single. If it is 
necessary, to do so, be particular to place him in the 
shafts as quietly as possible. As there is no danger 
attached to this transaction, we have no established 
rule, leaving the operator to be governed by circum- 
stances and his own judgment. Before hitching him 
to a wagon, rattle the shafts, shake the wagon, walk 
him out and in between the shafts, lead him in to- 
ward the wagon, uncheck him and allow him to 
examine in his own way the object, so new and 
terrifying to him. You must accustom him to the 
wagon, or there is danger. If he continues frightened, 
in spite of these efforts, it will be well to let him go 
for a while. Then try again, until he gets quiet. You 
may then hitch him to the wagon, and drive him very 
carefully on level ground for a few minutes, for the 
first few times avoiding backing and turning, if pos- 
sible, being careful for a few days to give only short 
drives. Three miles and back, afterwards, will do no 
harm, gradually toughening the colt to do your work. 

Our method, however, and the only one that can 
be safely used, is to hitch the colt up alongside of a 
broken horse, putting him on the offside. There are 



110 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

several reasons for hitching on the offside. It is 
usual to jump from a wagon on tho nearside ; and in 
this act, if any accident shall happen, such as your- 
self falling down, or any other movement, likely to 
alarm the horse, he may start, and, if he were on the 
nearside, he would wheel around from you, and per- 
haps do damage, before you got within reach ; while, 
if he was on the offside, he would, if frightened, 
wheel towards you, the broken horse being likely to 
remain steady. Another reason is, that the opera- 
tions with the colt have, thus far, mainly been on the 
nearside, and it will not seem quite so strange to 
him, to have a horse on that side. 

The harness, being on both horses (quite loosely 
on the colt), with long inside reins, you will buckle 
a strap around the near fore foot of the colt, just below 
the fetlock, with an inch ring slipped on the strap. 
Tie a long line to the ring, pass it under the girth of 
the colt, bring it up on the outside of his trace, 
and hold it in your right hand. The driving lines 
hold in your left hand. You will then drive the 
team about. As }> , ou start them, promptly and deci- 
dedly, use such word as you choose, never varying 
from the same word, frequently pull up the lines 
and say: "whoa" at the same time, draw upon 
the line, attached to the foot, until the foot is lifted 
from the ground and held there, leaving the colt 



BREAKING THE HORSE TO HARNESS. Ill 

standing on three legs, in spite of his struggles. 
After a few times doing this, you may unharness 
him, as this is sufficient for the lesson. When ready 
to hitch up, which you may do now at your leisure, 
j'ou will do as before, and after a little driving, hitch 
the team to a wagon and get in. You may now start 
off slowly, stopping the team once or twice, while on 
a walk, saying, " whoa " as before, and pulling up 
the foot strap. You will now readily perceive, that 
jo\\ have perfect control over the colt's movements, 
whether on a walk or trot, without any danger to the 
co!t. The colt will not stumble, strange as it may 
appear, it being almost impossible for him to fall by 
this means while in motion. A long experience 
warrants this statement. Short and lively drives 
are what you now want, until the colt becomes broken 
aud obeys the rein and word, "whoa" You may 
then change sides with him, to teach the other side of 
him, of course, changing the foot strap to the inside, 
each time. When he has by these means become 
accustomed, to being handled freely, you may hitch 
him up, single or double, as you choose, for he is 
now ready to drive. 

21 — TEACHING THE COLT TO BACK, (ROCKWELL). 

This should not be attempted, until the colt has 
been driven at least eight or ten days, nor until the 



112 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

habit of readily stopping, starting, driving and obey- 
ing the reins has been formed. If you adopt this 
rule, no colt will balk, throw himself down in harness, 
run into a fence, or refuse to stand while the driver 
is getting into the carriage. When sufficient time 
has elapsed to warrant you in undertaking to teach 
him to back, take a common bridle — a bitting 
bridle is best — and begin by taking hold of the 
side reins, standing in front of the colt, gently push- 
ing backward, saying, " Back" at the same time he 
steps back. This you will repeat, until he readily 
takes two or three steps backward, when you will 
release him for the present. At the next trial, you 
may put on the reins and take your position behind 
him, passing the reins through the side rings of the 
strap, or, if obliged to use a harness, passing the reins 
through the shaft straps, holding the reins well down 
by his side, to prevent him from turning round and 
facing you. Have him loosely checked. As you step 
behind him, pull gently on the reins, and as he steps 
backward, say, " Back" and immediately slacken the 
reins. A half an hour's exercise is usually sufficient 
at a time, repeating the operation until he backs 
readily. It is well, to give him one or two sharp 
steady pulls, for eight or ten feet backward, just be- 
fore leaving him each time. He is now ready to be 
hitched up, as you usually hitch up your horses, and 



BREAKING THE HOESE TO HARNESS. 113 

ready to form tlie habit of backing to wagon at the 
word. Be careful for the first few times not to ask 
him to back with a load, each time having the wagon 
in a favorable position, as descending ground, when 
the attempt is made. By using this precaution, 
the colt will soon learn to be handy, and practice 
will perfect him. 

22 — REFUSING TO PULL, (RAREY.) 

Any faults, on the side of the horse, are generally 
the consequence of false treatment, and the best 
proof for this assertion is the refusal of the horse to 
pull. This opposition is not founded in the nature 
of the horse, but only occurs in a certain state of the 
same, as : excitement, perplexion, etc., brought 
about by irrational treatment. It often happens, 
that a lively horse, hearing the voice of his driver, 
will jump in the harness, thereby not moving the load, 
but receiving a jerk on his shoulders, which throws 
him backward, and which at the same time will 
stop the other horse. The driver generally continues 
to urge the horses on. Before the quiet horse begins 
to pull, the lively one has made another plunge and is 
again thrown backward. The quiet horse, not being 
able to pull the load alone, will also become per- 
plexed and will stand still, not knowing what to do. 
Oftentimes, then, they have to suffer from the stu- 



114 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

pidity of the driver, who whips them in his blind rage. 
But this makes matters worse, the horse gets obsti- 
nate and the next time he will be sure not to pull at 
all. 

If a horse refuses to pull, be kind to him, caress 
him, allay his excitement by speaking and stroking 
his neck, and leave the team alone, for ten or fifteen 
minutes. Then urge them on again, turning the 
horses a little to the right and left, so as to get them 
in motion, before they feel the pressure of the load 
behind them. Drive about twenty paces and stop 
again, before the balky horse stops on his own ac- 
count. Then caress and start again. 

In correcting such a horse, it is a good plan to 
first hitch him with a quiet horse to an empty wagon, 
tie the traces of the quiet horse a little shorter, so as 
to cause him to take the load alone at first starting 
By this means, the excitable horse will become ac- 
customed to walk by the side of the other horse. 
You may then hitch both horses equally long, drive 
up some hill, first with the empty wagon, then with 
a load on, and you will surely get the horse to pull. 

23 — TO DRIVE WILD HORSES ; OR, SUCH OF VICIOUS 
HABITS, (RAREY.) 

The manipulations are similar to Rockwell's 
method, described in "Hitching up the colt." Rarey 



BREAKING THE HORSE TO HARNESS. 115 

says : It is only necessary to tie up one fore-leg, so 
that the hoof points upward, nearly touching the 
body. The horse, then standing on three legs only, 
is not able to kick, but you may do with him, what 
you please. Should he begin to jump or get wild, he 
will soon quiet down, seeing the futility of his at- 
tempts to free himself. As soon as he gets quiet, 
untie him again, stroke his leg, caress him, give him 
a little rest, and tie the leg up again. 

The next step is to lead the horse about until he 
has learned to walk on three legs only. Then hitch 
him to a small, light wagon, and let him walk at lei- 
sure. Being unable to kick or run away, you have 
nothing to fear. You may safely give him the reins, 
and even use the whip. He will soon tire out and stop 
on his own account, even if he were the wildest horse 
that ever had a harness on. 

The horse, being first alarmed, with such treat- 
ment, as soon as he perceives that no harm is done 
to him, will quiet down and pay no further attention 
to the harness. This is the best cure for the vice 
of kicking. 

24 — TO TEACH A HORSE TO LIE DOWN, (RAREY.) 

Bend the left fore foot in the knee, put a strap 
Fig. 19, around the fore arm and fetlock, so that he 
cannot set his foot down on the ground. Place 



116 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 




Fig. 19. 




Fig. 19a 



a girth around the horse's body, 
fasten a strap with an inch ring ; 
attached around the horse's right 
fetlock, tie a strap or rope into 
this ring, and draw the strap 
through the girth under the belly, 
Fig. 20. Standing on the left 
side, take firm hold on the bridle 
rein with your left hand, near the 
bit, and while pulling the strap 
with your right hand, press 
against the shoulder of the horse, 
until he moves. As soon as this 
happens, lift up the right leg by 
a strong pull on the strap, and he 
will sink down on his knees. As 
the horse may begin to struggle, 
take a firm hold on the strap, so 
as to prevent him from regaining 
his feet. If he rears up, tarn 
his head toward you, Fig. 21, 
and he will soon get tired and 
sink down on his knees again. 
Crowd with your shoulder gradu- 
ally, not violently, against his 
side, and after, perhaps, ten 
minutes, he will turn over on 






RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 117 

liis right side away from you, and you can do with 
him what you please, Fig. 21a. Another way is, 
after the horse is on his knees, to pull his head 
sharply to the right, until he gets tired, loses his 
balance and will fall over to the left or toward you, 
Fig. 20a. Unfasten the straps, stretch out his legs, 
caress and stroke his neck, speak to him gently, and 
after about fifteen minutes, allow him to get up 




Fig. 20. 



118 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



again, using the words : " Get up" Repeat three 
or four times in one lesson, and give two lessons a 
day. After four lessons, the horse will surely lie 
down without these resources, by simply lifting up 
one leg and touching the other at the knee, with 
a whip. 




Fig 20a. 
25— THROWING A HORSE, (ROCKWELL). 

The easiest and most effectual method of throwing 
a horse, is to strap up the near fore foot, put 
on a surringle with a ring fastened to the top of it ; 
tie a half-inch rope around his neck in the same 
manner you would hitch him by the neck ; place it 







Fig. 21a. 



120 HOW TO JUDGE A HOUSE. 

up near the throat lash with the knot on the near 
side ; pass the rope through the mouth and bring it 
along his neck on the off side, and pass it through 
the ring on the back, standing back on the near side 
about six or eight feet from the horse opposite his 
near side hind leg, drawing the rope sufficiently tight, 




Fig. 22. 

to keep it in the mouth. Pull carefully until he 
yields his head a little to the off side ; then give a 
sharp, strong pull, and keeping your hold, pull 
sharply, until he is down, Fig. 22, which will occupy 
from one to five seconds. As he goes down, lying 
upon the near side, you keep the rope tightened 
and he cannot get up. By repeating this, you will 
soon make him quite a trick horse, as he will learn 
to lie down, by simply pulling on the off bridle rein. 
Throwing is often necessary in surgical operations, 
and, as the horse may be thrown on either side and 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 121 

with perfect safety, by this plan, it is preferable to 
the old way of throwing by main strength. 

26 — TO TEACH A HORSE TO FOLLOW HIS MASTER, 
(RAREY). 

Take the horse into a large stable or barn, step 
up to him, take hold of the halter, and touching him 
with a long whip gently over the loins, turn his head 
toward you. Then lead him on the halter strap, 
through the stable, caressing and speaking to him, 
using the words : " Come here, Sir /'' and, as often 
as you turn around, touch him with the whip to 
cause him to step up close. Should he stop and turn 
around, administer a few sharp cuts with the whip 
around his hind quarters, causing him to turn his 
head quickly toward his master. After each touching 
with the whip, caress again. To avoid the touch of 
the whip, the horse will soon come up on his own 
account to be caressed, without being pulled by the 
halter. After a lesson of half an hour, it will follow 
his master through the whole stable. 

After the stable lessons have been repeated three 
or four times, he must be taken out of doors and 
the lessons repeated until he is safe. 

27— TO CAUSE THE HORSE TO FOLLOW YOU, (ROCKWELL). 

To cause him to follow you while his head is con- 
fined with a bridle or halter, put on the " Yankee 



122 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

Bridle" See Fig. 18. Take hold of the rope about 
two feet from the head, give him a few short, quick 
side pulls to the right and left, then, taking quickly 
hold of the rope farther towards the end, as you step 
back, say decidedly : " Gome here, Sir" If he comes 
forward, caress him ; if he does not come, give him 
a pull with a sideways tendency, and repeat the 
attempt to have him come forward, until he does 
come ; then start off either to the right or left, 
with the rope slackened ; if he does not follow you, 
give him more pulls sideways and try him again. 
With an ordinary horse you can teach the lesson in 
ten minutes, so as to be followed by him when you 
are near the head. Step partially behind him, 
laying the rope along his back, and say : " Come 
here, Sir." He will not be likely to do it, because 
he has only been taught to go forward at the words. 
To teach him to follow you in this direction, you will 
then chirrup to start him, repeating the words. If 
he comes, caress him ; if he does not come, or 
moves in the wrong direction, pull upon the bridle, 
caressing him as he obeys. The same rule will apply 
to any direction in which you wish him to follow 
you. It is quite necessary to teach the horse this 
habit, as it is the foundation of many others, and is 
one of the most valuable which the horse can 
possess. 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 123 

To teach Lira for your amusement to follow you 
when entirely loose, put on the near fore foot, a long 
foot strap, and place on him a girth ; and holding 
the end in your hand, step away from him ; then step 
toward him and if, he attempts to step away from 
you, pull up on the strap and say : " Whoa." If he 
stops, step up and caress him ; repeat until he will 
allow you to step up to him without moving away. 
Now take a short, blunt whip in your right hand, 
and the strap in your left, standing by his side, pass 
your right arm over the withers and gently touch 
him on the offside of the head ; if he starts to move 
off, pull up on the strap, and say : "Whoa." When 
he turns his head, caress him gradually with the 
whip, forcing him to turn his head around toward 
you. When he will do this, every time you put the 
whip over, you may remove the foot strap and prac- 
tise him in the lesson, until he will come to you, 
every time you lay the whip across his neck ; then 
put on the foot strap again, put your whip in the 
same position and hit him in the same place quite 
hard, at the same time, saying : " Come here, Sir." 
After a little, he will be very prompt ; then place him 
in a corner and step off at a distance of eight or ten 
feet, and say : " Come here, Sir." If he comes, ca- 
ress him ; if he does not come, hit him gently on the 
breast with a long whip. He will, perhaps, struggle 



124 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

to get away, and if he attempts to get out of the cor- 
ner, pull up on the strap. When he faces you, step 
up to him and caress him, placing him back in the 
corner and repeat. If he finally shows a disposition 
to follow, step back coaxingly, and when he stops, 
caress him ; at each further repetition use the words: 
" Come here, Sir," at each motion of the whip. In 
this way he will soon learn to follow you at the word, 
if you have a whip in your hand. Don't take him 
out of doors to practise until he is quite perfect, and 
then begin in a small yard and alone. 

28 — TO TEACH THE HORSE TO STAND STILL WITHOUT 
TYING, (RAREY). 

After the horse has learned to follow his master, 
make him stand in the middle of the stable, caress 
him at the head and neck, and gradually farther and 
farther back. As soon as he moves or walks away, 
give him a sharp cut and take him back to the place 
where he first stood. If he stands quiet, caress him 
by moving all around him. Each time he moves, 
administer a cut and begin again. He will soon 
stand still ; walk faster around him, touching him 
only now and then ; move around him in wider cir- 
cles, and if he stands still, step up to him and caress 
him, and continue the circling. Don't leave the 
horse too long on the same spot, but walk him for a 



RAREY AND ROCKWELLS TRAINING METHODS. 125 

change through the stable, and repeat the lesson on 
another spot. The lesson should not last longer 
than half an hour. 

29— BAD TO BRIDLE, (ROCKWELL). 

With the " Yankee Bridle," Fig. 18, pull his head 
down and gently handle his ears. When he will al- 
low you to do so without trying to get his head up, 
loosen up and allow him to lift it. If he is inclined 
to strike with the fore legs, put on the halter and tie 
him to a post, then apply the " Yankee Bridle" 
sharply, keeping at a distance ; then approach him, 
keeping the halter pulled tight by means of the rope 
in your hand, and pulling his head down, handle his 
ears gently. When he allows it quietly, caress him. 
If he is inclined to back, back him into a stall 
and repeat. In half an hour he will allow you to 
handle his ears to your liking. Kepeat whenever he 
shows signs of returning to his old habit. 

If you have no time to break him, in putting on 
the bridle, pass your right hand under the neck, take 
hold of the nose from the opposite side ; with your 
left hand pass the bits into his mouth ; take your 
hand from the nose, and with it carefully put on the 
headstall, while your left hand is in the mouth work- 
ing at the bit, shaking and fumbling it to keep his 
attention, until the headstall is properly placed. 



126 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

If hard to put the bit in the mouth, pass your right 
hand around under the neck, and take hold of the 
nose. With the left hand press the lips against the 
bridle teeth, before the bit touches the teeth. This 
will cause him to open the mouth. To break up the 
habit, use the Yankee Bridle while bitting, passing 
the bit in and out, hitting the teeth each time. This 
will cure him. 

30 — BAD TO BACK, (ROCKWELL). 

Use the Yankee Bridle, and tie to a ring in the 
wall with a long halter strap. Lead him past the 
ring as far as the halter will allow, and from the op- 
posite side from the halter, pull back upon the 
Yankee Bridle. Do not use at this time any 
words. Continue this until he backs readily at the 
pull, then begin using the word, "Back," and re- 
peat until he understands the meaning of the word 
and will back upon being told to. Do this next in 
harness, and if necessary after he is hitched to wagon. 
There is no difficulty in soon fixing the lesson upon 
his attention, so that he will never forget it. 

31 — HARD PULLERS, (ROCKWELL). 

Give a horse which pulls upon the bit, all 
the road he wants, and let him go. If he goes too 
fast, jerk upon one line and then the other, slacken 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 127 

up and let him go again. If this does not answer, 
drive him with the Yankee Bridle, without the rope, 
attaching the lines to its bit without martingale. 

32— SHOEING THE COLT, (ROCKWELL). 

To prepare a colt for shoeing the first time, tie a 
long strap around his neck, pass it along the near 
side, between the hind legs, and bringing it around 
the near hind leg, close up to the body, pass it under 
the strap around the neck ; then draw upon the strap, 
holding him meanw T hile by the bridle. The colt will 
probably be nervous at the pull, and you will loosen 
it and caress him over the face and neck, gradually 
tightening at each successive pull, using no words 
but gentle ones, and not saying, " Whoa." When 
he has become accustomed to that, lower the strap 
to a point just above the hock, and gradually pull 
upon the strap until you lift the leg, at the same time 
pulling upon the bridle with a side or back pull, to 
prevent his stepping forward. 

When you have thus succeeded in easily lifting 
the leg pretty well up, you will find that you can 
take it up with your hand and hold it. The same 
process must of course be gone through with on the 
other leg, and after about ten lessons, your colt is 
ready to go to the blacksmith. The rule has usually 
been to take the colt to the blacksmith first, but he 



128 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

is more than apt to get bad habits by being forced 
into position to be shod and probably gets wounded 
to his injury, if the blacksmith's stock of patience is 
not very large. Shoeing should always be done as 
the feet grow tender, and if quite young, shoe very 
often. 

If a horse does not submit quietly to be shod in case he 
is nervous, no good will come of the blacksmith deal- 
ing roughly with him, beating and otherwise mal- 
treating him. 

Another simple and effective way to overcome the 
difficulty without resorting to violence, may be found 
in the following : 

Tie a light, but strong rope or strap on the lower 
jaw, keeping the tongue above. Fasten a ring in the 
tail, and another near the mouth, in the rope ; then 
pass the rope through the ring in the tail and back 
through the ring near the mouth. Then pass the 
rope back of the horse and draw his head to one side, 
while you shoe his feet on the other side. Reverse 
the rope to shoe the other side. 

In shoeing horses for corns, care must be taken that 
the corn be well cut out and a little butter of anti- 
mony or muriatic acid, applied to the part affected. 
The hoof from the corn backward must be cut away, 
so that no part of the heel strikes the shoe, avoiding 
pressure, and relieving the part from unnecessary 



RAREY AND ROCKWELL'S TRAINING METHODS. 129 

concussion. A horse thus shod, no matter how bad 
his corns may be, will travel sound and with perfect 
ease, that otherwise shod would be decidedly 
lame. 

In shoeing for quarter-cracks care and judgment is 
required. The horse should be shod precisely on 
the same principles as for corns ; a bar-shoe often 
recommended, is unnecessary. 

Properly shod, there will be but little trouble in 
growing out a sound hoof. The least pressure upon 
the heel of the shoe will be sufficient to prevent the 
hoof from growing down, and thus defeat any efforts 
which may be made toward remedying the injury. 
So soon as three-eighths or half an inch of new horn 
has grown down, the roof should be burned with a 
red-hot iron just above the crack, at right angles 
with it, which will prevent its breaking up anew. A 
little tar or hoof ointment should be kept upon the 
part, which will protect it from dirt and assist in 
hastening the growth of the new horn, usually re- 
quiring six to nine months for the crack to grow 
out. 

33 — STRIKING AND KICKING WHILE SHOEING, 
(ROCKWELL). 

Some horses, especially stallions, are in the habit 
of striking with the fore legs, if the attempt is made 



130 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

to shoe them. Tie up the left front leg, stand on the 
other side of him and pull his head toward you. In 
this way he cannot strike, and the blacksmith will 
meanwhile shoe the leg tied-up. Do the same with 
the right fore leg. 

For kickers take a long rope, tie it around the 
neck with a slip-noose knot (placing it well down on 
the neck) pass it between the fore legs, bring 
it around the near hind leg just above the hock and 
pass it through the portion around the neck which 
gives you a means of holding the hind leg. This 
will convince the horse that he is over-matched. 
Pull up the hind leg with one hand, and on the 
Yankee Bridle with the other. If time is important 
you will find it advisable to shoe him while thus 
held, which can be done with a little inconvenience, 
changing the straps as you change legs. Every 
time you do this without hurting him goes to help 
cure him. The same rules will apply to mules, 
though mules are controlled easier. 



BITS AND BITTING. 

The art of bitting a horse properly is so little un- 
derstood, that it would seem that some hints about 
the conformation of a horse's mouth and the place 
where to locate the bit, might be appreciated by those 
who take a lively interest in the well-being of our 
dumb, patient friends ; the same time reaping for 
themselves the benefits derived from proper bitting: 

The many complaints we so frequently hear: 
"I dont know what makes my horse pull so hard"; 
or, " what makes him poke out his nose "; or, "he does 
not come up to the bit", etc., would very soon cease 
to be heard. Unfortunately, the bitting of horses is 
generally left to persons who have not the faintest 
knowledge of the anatomy of a horse's mouth, and 
whose faculty of reasoning does not go a great way. 
They conclude a bit is a bit, and toss the same up as 
high as possible into the " critter's mouth," but, be- 
yond that, they don't bother their poor brains. 
Whether the master rides or drives comfortably or 
not, an accident happens or not, they don't care 
much. At any rate, it is never their fault — " the hoss 
is no good anyhow." When will the time come that 
gentlemen take a personal interest in these matters 

131 



132 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

by studying the very simple laws of nature, thereby 
making themselves independent from their grooms, 
and the stories they tell them about their horses. 

There is nothing more awkward and difficult to 
manage, than a horse with a bit not perfectly adapted 
to his mouth, and to his whole frame or one that has 
been ill placed. Many an otherwise excellent horse 
has been put down as a worthless brute and sold, 
and all on account of improper bitting. 

There are three dimensions of the interior of the 
horse s mouth, which must be accurately ascertained 
before attempting to fit him with a proper bit. 

The first is the transversal width of the mouth, 
from side to side, measured at a point directly oppo- 
site the chin groove. 

The second dimension is the distance of the bars or 
the width of the channel in which the tongue lies, 
and which determines how much of the mouthpiece 
may be allowed for the port. 

The third dimension is the height of the bars, or, 
the distance between their upper surface and the 
bottom of the chin groove. 

The mouthpiece ought to be just so wide as to fit 
the horse's mouth snugly. If wider, it will 
slip from side to side, and the edges of the port if 
there are any — press upon the very sensitive bars, 
causing the horse intolerable pain ; to avoid which, 



BITS AND BITTING. 133 

he will either poke out his nose or creep back behind 
the bit, sometimes with very serious consequences 
as : rearing, bolting, plunging, etc. If the mouth- 
piece is too narrow it compresses and chafes the 
lips, and by displacing them so that the folds 
cover the bars, the direct action of the bit on the 
latter is neutralized, and the horse becomes numb 
in the mouth. 

The width of the port, which in most bits we see 
is from one-half to one inch too wide, must corre- 
spond exactly with the width of the tongue-channel 
at the point opposite the chin groove, and which is 
exactly one and a third inches. This being the 
proper place where the mouthpiece should rest in 
the horse's mouth, the width of the port, therefore, 
should be the same, viz : one and one-third inches, 
or, even slightly less, say : one and one-quarter in- 
ches, to avoid bruising the bars as mentioned above. 
The sole purpose of the port being to make room 
for the tongue, its height should not exceed five- 
eighths of an inch, as being sufficient for any horse. 
The higher the port, the greater the danger of 
injuring the roof of the mouth when pressure is 
brought upon the reins, and of making the horse 
restive. 

Horses' mouths are very different in formation 
and size, but the heighth of a horse's bars is nearly 



134 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

constantly one and three-fourth inches, therefore, 
the length of the upper branch of the bit should be 
exactly the same, meaning the distance from where 
the curb hook rests, in the upper ring, to the centre- 
line of the mouthpiece where that is riveted to the 
side branches. 

Thus, we get a right-angled triangle, formed by the 
upper branch of the bit, an imaginary line drawn 
from the mouthpiece to the chin groove (both being 
one and three-fourth inches long), and the curb chain. 
Only under these conditions can the chain rest in 
its proper place, that is, in the chin groove, and act 
as a fulcrum to the leverage of the bit. The chain 
thus remaining stationary, causes the horse no pain, 
and it will yield readily to the pressure of the 
mouthpiece on his jaws. 

The upper branch of the bit being one and three- 
fourth inches, the lower one should be three and one- 
half inches, to be in the ratio of 1 and 2 — with very 
big horses three and three-fourth inches — giving the 
rider all the necessary lever power for controlling 
the horse. 

The bit put into the horse's mouth, the mouthpiece 
should be placed right opposite the chin groove, the 
curb chain twisted so as to be perfectly smooth and 
hooked in, so that there is room for the first three 
fingers of the hand, when put between chain and 



BITS AND BITTING. 



135 




chin-groove. 

If the reins 

are then 

pulled, the 

side branches of the 

bit will form an angle 

of about 20 degrees 

with the mouth. 

If the upper branch 
is too long, the curb- 
chain will mount up- 
ivard and press upon 
the sensitive outer 
parts of the jaw. RIGHT WAV 
Moreover, there will be no 
lever action, and the horse 
will, therefore, bore in the 
rider's hand — the bit stands 
stiff. On the other hand, 
if the upper branch is too 
short, the hit fcdls through, 
the curb will, no doubt, 
remain in the chin-groove, 
but, forming a very acute 
angle with the branches of 
the bit itself, will have no 




WRONG WAY 

Fig. 23. 



136 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

value as a prop, but the lever action will be too 
great. It will be now easily understood how it 
comes that people, in order to prevent a bit with 
very short upper branches, from falling through, 
are driven to use a very tight curb, the result being 
that the whole action of the bit is transferred from 
the interior of the mouth to the chin. In order to 
prevent a bit, with very long upper branches, from 
standing stiff, they use a very loose curb, which has 
the effect of making the bit fall through ; or, what 
is very common, a bit, with very long upper 
branches, is pulled up as high as it will go into the 
horse's mouth, and then, either a loose curb is 
attached, in which case this great piece of iron- 
mongery, of course, falls through, and has not the 
expected effect; or, they put the curb- chain very 
tight, in which case the chain rests above the chin- 
groove, hurting the horse considerably with the 
result that it will bore in the rider's hand, and 
try to run away. Whereas, a much smaller and 
lighter bit, if adapted to the mouth, would be much 
more efficient. 

The structure and size of the horse's bars and 
tongue must also be considered, as those factors de- 
termine the thickness of the mouthpiece. A horse, 
with fleshy bars and a thick tongue, needs what is 
called a sharp bit, viz : a thin mouthpiece, one-half 



BITS AND BITTING. 137 

inch in diameter. A horse with high, sharp bars, 
and a fine tongue (the characteristic of well-bred 
horses), requires a very light mouthpiece, viz : three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter. Thus the thicker 
the mouthpiece, the lighter the bit. 

Sometimes we meet with the erroneous idea that 
it is the actual weight of the bit in pounds and 
ounces which constitutes a light or a sharp bit, and 
that the lighter ones are : " Ladies' bits." A light 
bit, under these suppositions, in a lady's hand, might 
prove the cause of serious misunderstandings be- 
tween the fair rider and her horse. It is the horse 
and not the rider, that carries the bit, and a few 
ounces more or less, do not make the slightest 
difference. Nothing but the conformation of the 
horse's mouth should guide us in selecting a bit. 

Some bits have movable mouthpieces, which to a 
certain extent, make horses light in hand, as they 
play with the mouthpiece, but the mouthpieces 
cannot prevent the horse from putting his tongue 
over the bit, and through the constant friction, the 
mouthpiece soon becomes loose at the sides where 
it is inserted in the side branches, and the horse's 
lips grow sore from being pinched and chafed. 

Some horses acquire the bad habit of placing the 
tongue over the bit and lollying it out in front, or to 
one side. It generally originates from bad and se- 




Fig. 21 



BITS AND BITTING. 139 

vere biting in connection with a fleshy tongue, in 
which case the mouthpiece cuts the latter, thereby 
stopping the circulation of the blood, and causing 
severe pain, to escape which the horse draws his 
tongue back and places it over the mouthpiece. This 
makes matters still worse, as then the edges of the 
port, which as before stated are generally too wide, 
press into and bruise the sensitive bars. The horse 
will then either pull hard against or shrink back 
from the rider's hand, rendering him often quite 
unmanageable. With carriage' horses this lolling 
out of the tongue is generally the result of the 
bearing reins being too short. 

Other horses again form the dangerous habit of 
grabbing at and holding the lower branch of the bit with 
their lips and teeth, on one side or the other, ren- 
dering them perfectly unmanageable. This habit 
arises either from too sharp, or from too broad a 
curb-chain, or one that mounts up out of the chin- 
groove to the sensitive ends of the jawbones. This 
habit, if once acquired, is a very dangerous one, as 
such horses are very apt to run away. They need a 
bit with the lower branches in the shape of a re- 
versed capital 8. Lip-straps are sometimes used, 
but with doubtful effect. 

To overcome these difficulties I constructed, a few 
years ago, a combination bit, according to the given 



140 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

dimensions of mouthpiece and side branches, and 
had attached to it on the upper part of the port a 
short movable spoon of four inches long, and one and 
one-fourth inches wide, fitting exactly the tongue- 
channel. This bit has been tried by several 
authorities in riding, especially on fractious horses, 
and found to work admirably. Fig. 24. 

In fact all saddle and single carriage horses ought 
to have that spoon attached to their bits, as they 
like to play with their tongue at the same, thus 
rendering them light in hand, and, therefore, at all 
times under control, at the same time preventing 
their putting the tongue over the bit. The upper 
branches are bent outward, so as to fit any shape 
of head. In cases, where it is desirable to allow 
the horse a firmer leaning on the bit, than is 
necessary for road-riding, as, for instance, for 
hunting, a shorter bit may be used, which we may 
call dumpy bit The upper branch to be exactly of 
the described dimension, viz : one and three-fourth 
inches, but the lower branch, instead of being double 
the length, only to be two and three-fourths to three 
inches long. 

For small horses of 15 hands and less, and for 
ponies, the dimensions of one and three-fourths and 
three and one-half for the upper and lower branches 
must be reduced to one and one-half inches for up- 



BITS AND BITTING. 141 

per, and three inches for lower branch, the other 
equally important dimension, the transversal width 
of mouth, must be ascertained by measurement. 

For pairs, mouthpieces w r ith ports are only then 
advisable, if the bits fit the width of the horses' 
mouths perfectly ; because, if the coupling reins are 
short, as is often the case, the bit is displaced 
in the mouth by force and the edges of the port 
would invariably cut holes into the bars of the 
mouth. "With long coupling reins, reaching 
back almost to the hand of the driver, as it 
ought to be, this evil is lessened, the same time 
enabling the driver to adjust the reins, if necessary, 
from the box without dismounting — the port, with or 
without spoon, is perfectly admissable. Any bit- 
maker will furnish said bits if dimensions are given. 

It is to call the attention of those who love and 
esteem a horse to the unpardonable injuries done 
our dumb friends, that I beg to submit these my ob- 
servations and views on the subject. I sincerly hope 
they may accomplish their object — that of alleviating 
the suffering of some of them, and, thereby render- 
ing them more serviceable to their owners. 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 

It is not the intention to discuss all the different 
kinds of saddles in use, as the English or park 
saddle, the army, the school, the racing, or the 
cowboy saddle. They all have their advantages, 
according to their different purposes. The object 
is to compare the two different kinds of park riding 
saddles, which we see in daily use . They do not 
differ much in outward appearances. It is the 
skeleton, or the tree, that decides their merits, viz : 
the wooden, or the leather tree, making all the 
difference in the world, not only to the rider, but, 
also, to the horse. 

" The tvooden tree saddle/' as may be inferred from 
its name, is entirely unelastic, and, as long as that 
unyielding piece of horse furniture happens to fit the 
horse's back, it may work tolerably well. But the 
horse may change in condition, losing flesh for 
instance. This wooden unyielding tree cannot 
adapt itself to the altered circumstances, and the 
so-much dreaded catastrophe is at hand. There is 
a hole in the steed's back, and both horse and 
rider get an involuntary vacation. The saddle then 
goes to the saddlemaker for repairs, but no amount 

142 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 143 

of re-stuffing can make an elastic saddle out of it. 
One may say : " We cannot afford to keep two or 
three saddles for each horse. It is the business 
of the groom to see to it that it fits. He knows 
all about it." Well, he may or he may not. 

Now, let us investigate the second kind of saddle 
with " the elastic leather tree." This kind of saddle 
fits any horse's back, and is made so solid as to last 
three generations, and thousands of horsemen 
testify to-day to their unsurpassed qualities. This 
kind of saddle answers its purpose in every way. 
The yielding and elastic leather tree accommodates 
itself at all times to the shape of the horse's back. 
It fits by its elasticity and is not liable to produce 
sores. The rider in the saddle, the wdiole under 
surface bears equally upon the back, and, therefore, 
for long rides, or, for those riding in English 
style, these saddles do not have their equal — 
not only saving the horse's back from harm, but 
also, giving comfort to the rider, as they afford 
a softer feeling for the seat than the wooden tree 
ever can. As to the upper surface of both kinds of 
saddles, it is plain that we ride more comfortably on 
an elastic than on an un-elastic surface, the more so, 
as the seat of the leather-tree saddle is lightly 
stuffed, breaking the rebound considerably in favor 
of the rider. 



144 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

As to the absolute weight and size of the saddles, 
the lighter it is, the better for the horse, though there 
are certain limits, depending entirely on the build of 
the rider. Heavy weight needs a large under sur- 
face, and thereby the saddle becomes heavier. 
Ladies saddles are generally heavier than gentlemen's 
saddles, on account of the fair rider's side-seat, re- 
quiring a larger under surface. As a rule, our ladies' 
saddles are altogether too massive. Every ounce of 
unnecessary weight ought to be avoided, as it will 
tell on the horse, which oftentimes is of very light 
build. 

The jockey rides a saddle as small and light as 
possible, knowing quite well that every ounce of 
overweight will influence the speed of his horse, 
short as the trial is. Why should this not also hold 
good for ladies' saddles ? 

The importance of this seems to be now fully 
understood, for some manufacturers are at present 
constructing a decidedly lighter ladies' saddle, with 
a large opening over the withers, so as to avoid all 
possibility of bruising. The difference in weight be- 
tween the old and the new kind of saddles is from 
eight to twelve pounds. On this saddle, the equestri- 
enne sits close to her horse's back, and her bridle hand 
is, therefore, lower down, permitting a pull on the 
reins straight back in a direction parallel to the 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 145 

liorse's spine, which alone will reach the haunches 
of the horse. With the old saddle she sits too high 
above her horse, which produces a feeling of in- 
security, and the pull on the reins does not reach the 
horse's hind quarters, but goes upward into the air, 
one reason for the helplessness of a woman when her 
horse gets fractious. 

Nothing can be said about the shape of the upper 
surface of gentlemen's saddles, as that depends 
wholly upon the size of the rider ; the same is the 
case with the covering — -buckskin or hogskin — 
kneepuffs, or none, these things being mere matters 
of taste, though buckskin, on account of its rough 
surface, affords the rider a firmer hold on the saddle, 
and for riding green or fractious horses, it may be 
of advantage. 

Saddle cloths are now very seldom in use, though 
wrongly. The reason may be that those in present 
use never gave, nor could they give any satisfaction. 
The object of the saddle cloth is, to protect the stuff- 
ing of the saddle from becoming hard and lumpy 
from the perspiration of the horse, and, to save the 
iron parts inside the saddle from rusting and break- 
ing. They are usually made of felt or leather. The 
felt cloth, as long as it is new, fills its purpose pretty 
well, as it forms a soft layer between the horse's 
back and the saddle, but, as soon as it gets soaked 



146 HOW TO JUDGE A HOBSE. 

with perspiration, it becomes hard, irritating the 
horse's back, and producing sores, and then it is 
worse than no cloth. The leather cloth has the dis- 
advantage of not absorbing the sweat, which, finding 
no escape, will, and must accumulate as a slimy 
mass upon the back, irritating the back, and, very 
likely, producing sores and pimples. 

The only saddle cloth of real merit is the "Excel- 
sior," the upper surface of which, is of fine yellow 
felt, of the color of the saddle. The under sur- 
face, coming in contact with the horse's back, 
consists of the finest knitted wool, with ridges 
woven in it, running from front to rear, thereby ad- 
mitting a free circulation of air. Where there is air, 
there is no friction. Another feature is, that this 
fine wool fastens itself in the hair of the horse's 
back, thereby preventing the saddle from slipping 
forward. This latter fact is quite important for 
hunting men, and all those, whose horses are inclined 
to curve up their back after mounting, often- 
times the result of too tight girthing, or sensitive- 
ness of the back, thereby shifting the saddle and 
rider forward upon the withers. So, also, with horses 
of low withers and with plungers. With this saddle 
cloth, slipping will never happen, and, when the sad- 
dle is taken off, after a hard ride in warm weather, 
the horse's back will be found nearly dry, on account 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 147 

of these ridges. With these saddle cloths on, there 
is no need of severe girthing, as the saddle cannot 
slip. These saddle cloths are cut exactly in the 
shape of the saddle, and having the same color, 
look very neat, besides saving the saddle and the 
horse's back. 

Girths are made of all kinds of material, such as 
leather, hemp, hair, etc., all answering their respective 
purposes quite well, so far as the first saddling of the 
horse is concerned. But the trouble begins, after 
the horse has been in motion for some time, when, 
by natural causes, the girths become loose, permit- 
ting the saddle to slip forward, or to turn side- 
ways. This is especially the case with ladies' saddles 
on horses with low withers, or flat and light barrels, 
and we have either to take the risk of having our 
horse's back bruised somewhere, and our safe seat 
endangered, or, are obliged to dismount on the road 
to readjust the saddle. 

A really practical saddle girth is " New adjustable 
saddle girth" which is plain, simple, and fits any 
saddle. Fig. 25. The whole arrangement is on the 
double pulley principle, and consists of only one broad 
girth in two sections, overlapping each other, and con- 
nected by a pulley. About six inches from these over- 
lapping ends are the pulleys in the shape of a square 
double buckle, laced together by a strap, The outer 



148 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

ends of the girth, provided with buckles like anj 
other girth, are fastened to the saddle straps, on. 
either side, and the tightening of the saddle is ac- 
complished by drawing the overlapping ends over 
each other by the pulley strap, located on the right- 
hand side of the saddle. This arrangement is simi- 
lar to that of the army saddle, but looking very 
neat, and without the big ring at the side, which at 
the best, must pinch the horse. This girth fits any 
horse, big or small, quite unlike the common girths, 




Fig. 25. 

which sometimes happen to be too long, or too short. 
The end of this pulley strap being provided with a 
buckle, is fastened to strap on the right side of the 
saddle. It can be tightened or eased by the rider 
without dismounting or even loosening his or her 
seat in the saddle, however troublesome the horse 
may be. It makes the most obstinate horse as easy 
as the most tractable to girth up properly, and any 
woman or child can easily adjust it. It is equally 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 149 

desirable for all riding saddles, hunting, polo, park, 
military, ladies', or children's. For ladies, particu- 
larly in the hunting field, as also for horses having 
to turn out shortly after feeding, it is simply invalu- 
able, quite especially for cavalry, doing away 
with the necessity of very tight girthing at the start, 
sometimes so dangerous for rider and horse. There 
is another kind of girth made of braided cord, which 
is very durable, and prevents the slipping of the sad- 
dle, as it fastens itself in the hair. 

In stirrups, there is a great variety in shape and 
weight. Leaving shape as a matter of taste out of 
consideration, w T e find three kinds of gentlemen's 
stirrups, the light, the heavy, and the safety stirrup. 
The light stirrup should only be used for racing 
purposes, or by boys ; for gentlemen it is a rather 
dangerous stirrup, as, on account of its lightness, it 
is very apt to slip back on the foot, and in case of 
the rider losing his balance in the saddle, it is very 
difficult to disengage the foot quick enough, and a 
serious accident may be the result. Or, the rider 
holding the stirrup with the ball of the foot, they 
slip off in front very easily, flying around in all 
directions, and it is very difficult to re-catch them 
again. 

Not so the heavy stirrup, which, by its weight, offers 
more stability and safety for the foot. It is easily 



150 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



caught when lost, and is not so apt to slip back as 
the former. 

TL seems to be the best, for being 

heavy and opening on one side, it may become a 
life | rer in case of an accident. 

In there are also different kinds — 

the which is perfectly safe, though e; 

lost, and a clumsy affair; the V about the 

worst and most dangerous stirrup in existence 
through its being padded all around, it becomes 
too narrow, even for the smallest foot. If button 
boots are worn, the button- y the 

padding, and, in case of a fall, the rider may not 
be able I aage her foot quickly enough. There 

are several kinds of safety *i which the 

liance " seems to be the - it is really re- 

liable. It b ible stirrup, a small one inside a 

larger one. The foot is placed in the inner stirrup, 
and in case of a fall, this inner stirrup turns around 
thereby opening the foot-blade and the fen 
out. 

In . the first question arising 

where is the proper place for the saddle? The con- 
struction of the hors ulder is our only and 
unalterable guide, and we cannot, with impunity 
back on that, as the result would be, sooner or later, 
weak-kneed horses, or broken collar-bones. 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 151 

We all know how desirable, and necessary it is, for 
the comfort and safety of the rider, that the horse 
should have a well-shaped and oblique shoulder 
and high withers. This, combined with moderately 
long and oblique pasterns, will secure an elastic 
and free action. 

Now let us examine how the shoulder-blades are 
attached to the body. They are fastened to the 
chest by powerful muscles and the skin, moving 
in an up and down direction, around an axis 
situated about four fingers below the top of the 
shoulder, so that, if the horse lifts his fore leg, 
the short part above that axis moves back and down- 
ward, whilst the part below that axis moves forward 
and upward, as we can easily feel by putting our 
hand to the upper end of the shoulder-blade. 
The reverse takes place if the horse puts his foot 
down, and shifts the burden forward. That shows 
us, that, if we place the saddle right close behind the 
shoulders (the horse standing still), and the girths 
are tightened, the saddle must interfere with the 
free action of the muscles when the horse is in mo- 
tion. The result being short, stiff, and unsafe steps 
to the ruin of the horse's fore legs, and the safety of 
the rider. Therefore, the saddle should be placed 
about the width of two fingers behind the rear end 
of shoulder-blade, so as to secure a free and safe 



152 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

action of the horse. Of course, a horse with a 
naturally straight shoulder, is per se, not fit for sad- 
dle use, and no amount of proper saddling can 
prevent, sooner or latter, usaHo mortale, horse, rider, 
and all. 

It is really amazing how little most of those in 
charge of saddle horses understand these facts, of 
which we can daily convince ourselves. 

The girths should be placed directly under the 
middle of the saddle so as to make the whole un- 
der surface bear equally all over the back. There 
are generally three girth straps, two under the mid- 
dle of the saddle, and one, more in front as a re- 
serve strap. If the girths are fastened to the two 
front straps, the pommel of the saddle will be 
pressed down upon the shoulders, interfering with 
their free action, very likely, galling the withers, and 
the cantle of the saddle will be in the air. The rider 
will slip forward, or, if he sits back by force, the 
girths must either break or take the wind out of the 
horse. The girths come too near the fore legs, if 
fastened in this manner, and the respiration of the 
horse is . seriously interfered with. Whereas, if the 
girths are fastened to the two backstraps, under the 
middle of the saddle, the horse w T ill suffer no incon- 
venience. That is easily explained by comparison. Let 
a person fasten a strap very tight around his chest. 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 153 

and he will soon find that unbearable. All acrobats 
and runners, put a strap around their waist, because it 
assists them in their efforts. The main portion of 
the lungs are enclosed by the chest (or by the true 
ribs in the horse), while the small ends or the loops 
of the lungs do not need so much room for expan- 
sion. Why should that not be the same with the 
horse ? 

Furthermore, if the rider sits then in the middle 
of the saddle, the equilibrium between horse and 
rider will be established. Or, if the rider sits very 
far back on the loins of the horse — which loins, by the 
way, are not intended by nature to carry the weight 
directlj 7 , a thing we see practised very often by 
thoughtless riders, causing considerable pain to the 
horse, as the kidneys are located right underneath 
the loins — the saddle will tilt up in front, and shift 
forward, the result, possibly, being a sore back. 
Horses, with ticklish backs, may resent such displace- 
ment of the weight by kicking vigorously, such 
movement sometimes followed by a graceful imitation 
of the catapult on the part of the rider. 

The fastening of the girths is seldom, properly 
performed. Many people throw the saddle rudely 
down upon the horse, as if the latter were a log of 
wood, thereby irritating many horses, especially 
mares, to such a degree, as to make them jump in the 



154 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

corner of the stall. Then they take the first girth, 
strapping to suffocation, then by the second 
girth in the same way. Others, again, instead of 
palling the girths upward, pull them against the 
horse, throwing the animal entirely off his feet 
Many a horse has been spoiled for lifetime by such 
practices, being taught to kick, or bite, or swell 
themselves up so as to protect themselves against 
over-girthing, the stupid groom, standing by, 
wondering at the viciousness of that beast. 

The proper way, is to put the saddle down easily 
upon the back, take up one girth after the other, 
fastening them loosely, and then tighten them grad- 
ually, hole by hole, until they are just snug enough 
to hold the saddle in its proper place. After that, 
put on the bridle, turn the horse around, back him 
into his stall, and tie him loosely on both sides, 
until he is wanted. In this way the horse suffers no 
pain, and his temper is not disturbed. Finishing 
of the girthing is done before the rider mounts. 
Horses should not be saddled before one hour and 
a-half after feeding, as they need that time for di- 
gestion ; but, in case they have to turn out sooner, 
the girths should not be drawn very tight, as the re- 
sult might be, especially with high-tempered horses, 
a rush of blood to the brain, under circumstances, 
endangering the life of the rider. 



SADDLES AND SADDLING. 155 

The stirrups should be hung just under the seat 
of the rider, as in this position only, the rider gets a 
firm footing upon them and a protection against slip- 
ping off. As a rule, we find them attached too far 
forward, giving the thigh an oblique direction for- 
ward, and the footing upon the stirrup will be in a 
diagonal direction to the seat. To establish his bal- 
ance, the rider is then compelled to lean forward, 
sometimes twisting his body in the most wonderful 
curvatures, to the detriment of the horse's knees. 
And in case of the horse shying, kicking, stopping 
short, or wheeling sharply around, etc , it may pos- 
sibly be accompanied by a voyage of the rider over 
the horse's ears, or by a fall to the side, all because 
the position of the foot is in an oblique direction. 

He who wishes to ride safely, and comfortably, 
should make it a habit to examine, before mounting, 
whether saddle and bridle are in proper position. 



ABOUT STABLE DRAINAGE. 

In the interest of horse owners, and to promote 
the health and well-being of our most useful and 
willing servants — our horses — also to keep away 
sickness from stables, the following suggestions for 
the laying of stable floors are submitted : 

For a stall 5 feet wide and 9^ feet long, the flooring 
would be as in cut, Fig. 25, showing the whole 
arrangement, and the laths, and iron drains, as 
they are joined together. 

Give 3)4 feet for the front boards, laid cross- 
ways, then put down a board 2 inches thick on either 
side of the stall, 6 feet long, 16 in. wide, overreaching 
the gutter behind the stall by about one inch, the 
rest in the middle is for the laths and drains. 

The laths ought to be of hard wood, (beechwood 
is best), and rabbetted 3-16 of an inch, so that the 
iron drains fit exactly under the laths, thereby an 
escape of urine is made impossible. These laths 
are 6 feet long, 3 1-2 in. wide, and 2 1-2 in. deep, and 
rabbetted from the bottom up 1 1-4 in. They are 
fastened down to the under-flooring by long screws, 
for the sake of easy removal, if necessary. The 

150 



. 



ABOUT STABLE DRAINAGE. 



157 



head of screws should be sunk down to avoid hurting 
the horse. 

The incline of the floor from head to gutter, should 






f 



v> — 






-'-* 



«*V 



• T 

I 



Ater 



3i 



If 



SI 



-/4* 




^u.-f£tr 



Fig. 25. 



158 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

in no case be more than 3 inches, for, if steeper, it 
affects the joints and loins of the horse. 

The iron dizains are 1 1-4 in. high, 1 in. wide inside, 
about one-eighth inch thick, and 6 feet long, and 
closed at the head end. 

The urine flows off through the iron drains into 
the gutter behind the stalls, and from there through 
the conducts to the sewer. 

This method of laying stable floors is not uncom- 
mon in Europe, and has, of late, been introduced in 
the new stables, built by the Lion Brewery, Ninth 
avenue and One Hundred and Eighth street, New 
York City, where it gives complete satisfaction, and 
the cost is very little. 

It is a fact that, perhaps two-thirds of our horses 
are, after a day's hard work, not only badly cared for, 
but condemned to seek rest and recuperation in 
stables unfit for any living creature, badly lighted^ 
badly ventilated, and worst of all, entirely inadequately 
drained. 

The poor creatures are condemned to inhale, dur- 
ing the whole night, the health-destroying vapors of 
a rotten floor, and bedding saturated with ammonia 
and all this because the present way of flooring 
stables is altogether wrong. This nuisance could be 
easily removed by simply breaking the old custom. 

An improvement in this direction would be an act 



ABOUT STABLE DRAINAGE. 159 

of mercy and justice to our faithful servants, a sav- 
ing to their owners by preserving their horses' health 
and usefulness, a saving in straw and harness, and a 
benefit to the inhabitants living near stables. 

May this appeal to the sense of justice of horse- 
owners, not go unheeded for the sake of the ill- 
judged saving of a few dollars. Every horse-owner 
can afford that small outlay. 

Iron drains can be had at any iron foundry at a 
cost of about fifty cents a piece. Hard wood laths 
about ten cents a piece. 



ABOUT DRIVING. 

one horse or a pair — four-in-hand or tandem. 

Driving a Pair. 

The horses should be properly matched, in every 
point, properly bitted and harnessed. They should 
be of the same height and disposition, have the same 
action, and carry their heads alike. 

Reins and whip are the means whereby the driver 
communicates with his horses. Short sounds and 
words complete the correspondence between them. 
The right hand may properly be called the assisting 
hand ; first, because it holds the whip, and gives the 
summons to start ; second, because of its assisting 
the left hand in stopping and turning the horses, in 
shortening and lengthening the reins held in the 
left hand, Fig. 26. 

The left, or guiding hand, holding tho left line be- 
tween thumb and first finger, the right line between 
second and third fingers, should be rounded off 
somewhat inward, and be carried with the under arm 
at right angles with the upper arm. As in riding, the 
wrist should be kept loose, not rigid, the hand stand- 
100 



ABOUT DRIVING. 



161 



ing quiet and being closed, so as to prevent the reins 
from slipping through the hand. 

The manipulations of turning, stepping back 
and stopping, (more fully explained further on), 
are accomplished by the right (assisting) hand 
grasping easily into the reins in front of the left 
hand. The shortening of the reins, whenever neces- 
sary, is carried out by drawing them back from be- 




Fig. 26. 



hind the left hand ; the lengthening , by letting them 
slip through the slightly opened fingers forward. 

The tvhip, or the instrument whereby the horses 
should be animated to step forward, similar to the 
pressure of the legs, or the application of the spurs 
in riding, should not be used only for punishment, 
but, particularly, as a means to regulate the paces 



162 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

to equalize the differences in the temper of the 
horses, and to assist in the correctness of the 
turns. 

The driver should be eagerly bent on handling his 
team in an elegant manner, so pleasing the eye of 
even the uninitiated. 

The hints icith the tvhip, also the lighter cuts, and 
lastly the punishing cuts, must be executed with a 
flexible wrist, hitting the horse from below to upward, 
and, if necessary, be repeated with increased force. 
The further forward of the hindquarters the whip is 
applied, the better, for, if administered far behind, it 
might provoke some horses to strike out, or kick 
over the traces. Sometimes the whip has to be 
used also on the inside, for instance, with a horse 
leaning against the pole, and carrying its head too 
far outward when going up hill or over heavy 
ground. 

If it becomes necessary to punish, begin with light 
cuts administered far forward. The driver should 
be moderate in this and never hit a horse at the 
wrong time, nor show the ruffian by thrashing the 
horse. To abuse high-bred, spirited horses, means 
pouring oil into the fire, and to show off one's force 
in thrashing a lazy or low-spirited horse, is a con- 
temptible act, making at all times a very bad impres- 
sion. High-bred horses, punished at the wrong time, 



ABOUT DRIVING. 163 

will be sure to bring the imprudent driver in 
trouble, sooner or later, if not endanger the carriage 
and its occupants. 

The gradually increasing effect of the whip upon 
the horses removes their fear and saves the occu- 
pants of the carriage unpleasant jolts and jerks, 
brought about by injudicious and rude handling of 
the whip. It is not desirable, that horses be too 
much afraid of the whip — jumping at the least 
touch of it. Cajole them with it, thereby, you 
will make them accustomed to it and allay their 
fear. An intelligent driver knows how to teach his 
horses the difference between hints, punishment, and 
cajoling. If there are occupants in the carriage > 
punishment should only be resorted to as the last 
thing, and even then, very moderately. 

The correcting of the horses should be done 
during the time of training, or exercising them, and 
if possible, unobserved, to avoid bad impressions. 

It should be mentioned here, that many coachmen 
have the very bad habit of continually using the 
whip, thereby either irritating their horses, or 
rendering them entirely unfeeling and unable to 
distinguish between hints and punishment. 

The best appearance the driver on the box always 
presents is, if he remains perfectly quiet and straight, 
though not rigid, during the many manipulations, 



164 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



giving the Lints to his horses as little perceivably as 
possible. 

THE POSITION OF THE COACHMAN ON THE BOX. 




Fig. 27. 



The position of the coachman on the box, should 
be unconstrained but straight, the legs stretched out 
as far as possible, to establish a firm support for the 



ABOUT DRIVING. 165 

handling and stopping of the horse's toes and knees 
close together, the upper arras held down perpen- 
dicularly, and close to the body, forming at the elbow 
a right angle with the under arms ; the hands 
straight with the under arm and placed before the 
middle of the body with the wrists slightly rounded 
off. 

The reins are held in the left hand ; the left rein 
on top, between thumb and first finger ; the right rein 
between second and third fingers. 

Both reins should be equal in length and just 
tight enough to feel the horses' mouths, but not too 
tight. The whip should be held in the right hand 
in an oblique direction, pointing to the left and for- 
ward toward the ear of the near horse ; the lower, 
thicker end of the whip, according to its length, ex- 
tending downward for a length of about four inches 
below the hand. The whip-hand should be placed 
near the left hand, on the same height, or slightly 
forward. 

The well-trained coachman, seated on the box, 
should, in waiting before the house, sit perfectly still 
and straight, avoiding all twisting and turning of his 
body. 

STARTING. 

The driver, holding the rein-hand (left) perfectly 
quiet, should give the hint to his horses for starting 



166 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



in a low hissing tone, or by the word " come," at the 
same time lowering his hand so as to give them rein 
enough to come up to the collar, then regulate the 
pace by laying on, or touching with the whip. First 
start at a walk, and after a few steps go over into a 
trot. If one, or both horses, especially young ones, 
do not start well, turn them first a little sideways, 
thereby loosening the carriage from the spot, and 
from this sideways motion they will easier find the 
start. 

The trot ought to be an even one for both horses, 
so that neither of them may be overtaxed ; the lazy 
horse must be brought up to the bit, as otherwise 
he would be favored at cost of the other horse. It 
is quite essential for economy and appearance 
sake that both horses should be of the same temper. 

On straight roads, and with light vehicles, it is 
customary to drive with one hand, the left only ; 
but, under special circumstances, as, for instance, in 
narrow roads, in crowded thoroughfares, or with 
elegant carriages, where style comes into play, it is 
advisable to use both hands ; that means, hold both 
reins in the left hand ; the right in front, or near the 
left, so as to be always prepared for a sudden turn- 
ing out or a stop. At all times keep your horses 
well up to the reins, for if one of them goes behind 
the rein, the pace must become uneven. 



ABOUT DRIVING. 167 

STOPPING. 

The passing over from a trot to a walk, or to a 
halt, should, if circumstances do not demand a short 
stop, be made gradually, so as to prevent the horses 
from slipping — especially on pavement — as also to 
protect the occupants of the carriage from getting 
jolted. In driving with one hand, turn your left 
hand inward and upward, the little finger mounting 
upward toward the body, thereby effectuating a pull 
on the lines. A stylish driver will never be seen 
lifting his arms up, or taking them back, or turning 
out his elbows. Throwing back the body is only 
admissible as a support in case of an unexpected 
sharp stop becoming necessary. In that case it 
is preferable to grasp with the right hand into the 
reins in front of the left ; the right hand being 
generally the stronger, by drawing back the lines, a 
stop will be effectuated. The whip must be in readi- 
ness, so that, in case the hands having acted too 
sharp, a touch of the whip will bring the horses 
up to the bit again. 

BACKING. 

Both horses should step back alike, on a straight 
line, assisted by familar pulls on the lines, placing 
the carriage in an oblique position thereby being 
avoided. The horses should not be permitted to 



168 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



hurry backward, but step for step. Lines and whip 
must assist each other. If one horse gets fixed, and 
refuses to back — frequently the case with young or 
not sufficiently trained horses — the coachman must 
loosen it first by light touches of the whip > 
then, as soon as one or two legs begin to move, the 
horse will yield immediately to the renewed pulls 
on the reins. Backing in a small space, or in nar- 
row passages, for the purpose of giving the carriage 
some other direction, must be done, very carefully, 
by turning the horses on a spot toward that side 
w T here the hindpart of the carriage is intended to be 
placed. 

For instance, you are compelled to drive up to a 
house-door upon your left hand side, the street be- 
ing blocked up by other carriages, and you see no 
other chance but to back your carriage in to the door. 
Turn your horses to the left, as far as there is room 
to do so, let them then step back so far until your 
left hind wheel reaches the spot where you 
intend to place the carriage ; then, swing your 
horses slowly to the right, the same as you turned 
them before to the left ; let them back slowly, which 
will bring the left fore wheel to the desired spot in 
front of the hind wheel, and finally turn your horses 
straight before the carriage, and you are at the in- 
tended place. 



ABOUT DRIVING. 169 

To execute a short turn about on the spot is still 
more difficult. At the first turn sideways, swing your 
horses around carefully and so sharp, that they 
come to stand at nearly right angles to the carriage, 
taking care not to move the hind wheels from the 
spot; then back and, at the same time, turn your 
horses in the opposite direction, thereby bringing the 
carriage into the new or opposite direction. All 
changes of direction of this kind, should be executed 
with great calmness and carefulness, and never by 
jerking and rude w r hipping, as then the purpose 
could never be reached, and the carriage might be- 
come damaged. 

In w r inter time, if the horses are sharpened, it is 
better to avoid, if possible, all similar sharp turns, 
as the horses are very apt to hurt themselves seri- 
ously. 

TURNING. 

In breaking in young horses, or, in driving in 
crowded thoroughfares, it is advisable to drive with 
two hands, that is: take in each hand, the correspond- 
ing rein, or else, the left hand holding both reins, 
must be assisted by the right. To all turns the im- 
pulse is given by the right hand, and as this is also 
holding the whip, it has to animate one or the other 
horse, so as to support the pull on the reins, and to 



170 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



keep up the pace. While the left hand is holding 
the reins in the described position, the right hand, 
before beginning any change of direction, will grasp 
into both lines over and in front of the left, and, by 
gathering the horses, prepares them for the turn ; and 




Fig. 28. 

then, taking hold of the inner rein with the first and 
second, or second and third fingers, gives the impulse 
for turning. Fig. 28. With well broken horses, a 
light pressure upon the rein being sufficient, the 
same must be increased, with not sufficiently trained, 
or sluggish or spoiled horses, until it takes effect. 
First give the hint to the inside horse, which has to 
begin the turning, and finish the same by alternate, 
more or less, strong and repeated pulls, at the same 



ABOUT DRIVING. 171 

time, shifting the left hand slightly forward, so as to 
give more rein to the other horse; both horses assisted 
by the whip. There is for instance, a stronger effect 
necessary on the outside horse, after the turn is 
finished, to bring both horses up to the bit, and 
into the new direction. It is a well-known fact, 
that broken horses are inclined to go too quick and 
too short into the turns ; the whip has, therefore, 
first to drive the inside horse easy into the reins, 
and to watch over it, that the traces of the inside 
horse first bring the wagon. The outside horse, 
having the longest distance to travel, must in case of 
his hanging back (oftentimes caused by the driver 
omitting to give the outside horse sufficient rein by 
shifting the left hand a little forward), be brought 
up to the bit, by touching him on the inside. In 
short, with lines and whip, an experienced coachman 
will execute a correct turn. 

TO TURN TO THE LEFT. 

Put the right hand over the left, take hold of the 
left rein and pull it backward, lift the thumb of the 
left hand, and close it down upon the loop formed 
by the rein, and after the turn is made, let the loop 
slip forward again through the hand. The left hand 
alone should make all turns, so as to leave the 



172 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

right band free for the use of the' whip. As soon 
as the near horse has received the impulse for the 
turn by the line, it must be animated into the turn 
with the whip, so as to bring the carriage, that is to 
pull the same by the traces into the new direction. 

Inexperienced drivers generally give the impulse 
for the turn to the left, by pulling the left rein, 
closely followed by an animation of the off horse. 
The consequence is that the off horse throws 
himself against the pole, and the pole against the 
near horse, compelling the latter to fall out with 
shoulder and body, thereby preventing him from 
pulling. The rules for driving one horse or a pair 
are generally the same. 

In turning to the right, place the right hand fall 
upon the rein. 

DRIVING FOUR-IN-HAND. 

The first requirement is an exact knowledge of how 
to handle the lines, and calmly to guard and regu- 
late the paces of the horses. 

There are several ways of holding the reins in the 
left hand, the first being : Take up the lines of the 
wheelers into your right hand, the left line between 
first and second lingers, the right, between second 
and third lingers, and equal them out. Then take 
the lines of your leaders into your left hand, and 



ABOUT DRIVING. 



173 



equal them out ; then shift them over into your 
right hand, so that the line of the nearside 
leader rests between thumb and first finger, and the 
line of the off-side leader, between first and second 
fingers and on top of the rein of the near-side wheeler. 




Fig. 29 



Mount the box with the assistance of your left hand, 
and when seated, transfer all four reins over to the 
left hand, in the same order as you held them in 
your right hand, equalize them, take the whip into 
your right hand, and you are ready to start. 

The right hand, so as to be ready for any emer- 
gency, should be placed a little forward of the left 



174 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

hand, leaning against the lines, and acting from there 
on all four lines. 

Close the left hand fully, so as to prevent any 
lengthening out or entanglement of the lines, be- 
cause you have four horses before you, and one 
pull on the wrong line may throw the whole team in 
confusion. The whip should be held as in driving a 
pair. Should it become necessary to shorten the 
lines, grasp the ends of the reins hanging down from 
the left, with the right hand, either slipping the 
left hand a little forward, or pulling the lines down- 
ward through the left hand. Keep in mind, that 
those lines which become too long, must be pulled 
through the hand backward, while those which be- 
come too short, must be allowed to slip through 
forward. 

If, during driving, you have to lengthen out, or to 
shorten one or the other line, grasp the same with 
two fingers of the right hand ; for lengthening out in 
front of the left hand, and for shortening behind the 
same, pull them forward or backward. 

To start correctly with four horses, it is essential, 
that all four should stand straight in the lines, and 
the leaders start a moment before the wheelers. A 
rushing forward of the wheelers must be carefully 
prevented, to avoid their running into the leaders, 
possibly followed by kicking and entanglement in 



ABOUT DRIVING. 175 

the traces, and by general disorder. In all paces, 
turns or short stops, the wheelers should be held a 
little shortened by the right hand, to prevent col- 
lision with the leaders. 

In general, the wheelers are the real draught 
horses of a four-in-hand ; the leaders, commonly of 
lighter build, are more of an appendage, their pull- 
ing amounting to little. Driving four-in-hand must 
be classed under the luxuries, and, performed by a 
stylish driver, presents a most beautiful aspect. 
The equalness of the tension of the traces and lines 
is a prime factor. If, unintentionally, the team 
should deviate from the straight line, the oblique 
direction must be corrected principally by the 
wheelers. 

Before stopping a four-in-hand, the coachman has 
to examine if all four lines are in equal tension, 
and then begin reining in the wheelers first, imme- 
diately followed by that of the leaders. 

In backing, first let the leaders step back a little, 
and as soon as they begin the motion, pull back the 
wheelers ; if reversed, the wheelers would find re- 
sistance from the leaders. 

Tarns are executed in a similar way as in driving 
a pair, but with the difference that the fore lines 
have to act first. 

Never turn the leaders too sharp, or too sudden — a 



176 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

mistake generally made by beginners — considering 
that by doing so, the leaders coming into an an- 
gular position to the wheelers, the direction must 
become a broken one. The leaders should only re- 
ceive a slight hint for a change of direction, and step 
only gradually into the new line of travel, so as to 
enable the wheelers and the coach to follow in their 
tracks. For this reason, begin all turns in good 
time, and gradually, especially in narrow streets, 
etc. 

Turning to the right. Take hold of the right fore 
line with your right hand, and give the offside leader 
the hint to turn gradually, at the same moment, the 
right hand grasps the line of the nearside wheeler, 
causing him to step diagonally to the left, so as to 
follow in the tracks of the leaders just swinging over 
to the right ; the right hand wheeler, whose part it 
is to bring the vehicle, must be animated into the 
turn by the whip. Move your left hand slightly 
forward, to enable the left leader to follow the right 
hand leader. As soon as the leaders are in the new 
direction, the pull on the right fore line must cease, 
and only the wheelers, but, merely by hint, must be 
led into the new direction. After all four horses are 
in the new line of travel, the pull on the different 
lines ceases, and the latter are equalled out to keep 
the horses in a straight direction. Turning to the 



ABOUT DRIVING. 177 

left is accomplished in the contrary way ; the circular 
and short turns are executed in the same way, always 
bearing in mind that the wheelers have to follow in 
the tracks of the leaders, and should never be jerked 
at the same time into the intended directions. 

In putting together a four - in - hand, always 
see to it, that the wheelers are the heavier 
horses, and at the same time, quieter in temper. 
The left leader should be an active, intelligent horse 
and well-broken. This is of special advantage and 
value in driving from the box. Very properly this 
horse is called the leader of the four-in-hand. 

Before putting the four horses together, it is ad- 
visable to exercise them first in pairs, so as to take 
out all friskiness and unevenness in the paces. 

In going Sown hill, the wheelers alone, have to hold 
back the coach, but care should be taken to pre- 
vent the leaders from hurrying forward, or from 
hanging back, as in the latter case, the pole, or the 
leadbars, might touch them, and the traces become 
too loose. 

In going up hill, let the leaders do their share in 
pulling. 

The handling of a four - in - hand is very diffi- 
cult, and needs much practising. The whip, on 
account of its length, is sometimes very much in the 
way, and after each use, the lash should be caught 



178 



HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 



up by the hand. The wheelers are to be animated 
by the gathered whip ; the leaders by the lash. 
To do the latter properly, that is, to hit the desired 
spot, or even the respective horse, is not an easy 
matter. 




Pig 30. 



Another way to arrange the four lines in the left 
hand, is as follows : 

(a.) The line of the left leader between thumb 

and first finger. 
(6.) The line of the left wheeler between first 

and second fingers. 
(a) The line of the right leader between second 

and third fingers. 
((/.) The line of the right wheeler between third 

and little or fourth fingers. 



ABOUT DRIVING. 179 

In this way there is a line between each two fin- 
gers ; the lines of the left side (near) horses being the 
two upper ones, and the lines of the right side (off) 
horses, the two lower ones. 

For breaking-in young horses this way of arrang- 
ing the reins may be of advantage, as in case of 
emergency the reins of the rightside horses are 
easily transferred over to the right hand. 

TANDEM DRIVING. 

Tandem driving requires as much, if not more, 
dexterity as driving four-in-hand. Select for this 
purpose, safe, lively but never excitable horses, the 
leader to be a horse that does not shy, so as not to 
disturb the driving direction by starting sideways. 
Horses used to go single are the best for the pur- 
pose. 

Manipulations and holding the lines are the same 
as in driving four-in-hand. 

Concerning the hitching, let the traces of the 
leader be a little longer, as in four-in-hand. These 
latter are either fastened to the shafts, or to the 
traces of the shaft horse, and held up by two 
straps, attached to the collar of the shaft 
horse. The shaft horse should be hitched firm and 
short, and should be checked up. The leader may 
go unchecked. - 



180 HOW TO JUDGE A HORSE. 

Kules for driving, especially for turning, stopping, 
etc., are the same as for four-in-hand driving. The 
driver must take care that both horses travel on a 
straight line, and are well up to the bit, and in 
the traces. 



THE END. 



William R. Jenkins's 

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VETERINARY BOOKS IN FRENCH. 



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Crnzel. Des Maladies de TEspece Bovine. Par J. Cruzel. 5 60 
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